Notes on the American Revolution: From Early Battles to Declaration and Foundation

The Battle of Bunker Hill

  • Date and Location: On June 17, 1775, General Gage ordered an attack on Breed's Hill, which later became famously known as the Battle of Bunker Hill.
  • Outcome: A British victory, but at an extremely high cost.
    • British casualties: 226226 dead and 828828 wounded.
    • Militia casualties: 140140 killed and 271271 wounded.
  • Significance of Casualties: An Englishman remarked, "If we have eight more such victories, there will be nobody left to bring the news."
  • Initial Forces: The battle involved "ill-organized militia" against "regular units of the British army."
  • Immediate Impact: After this costly battle, the American forces became better organized and garnered increased support from all 1313 colonies.

African-Americans in the Armies of Both Sides

  • New Avenues to Freedom: The outbreak of war presented American slaves with new opportunities for freedom.
  • Early Uprising in the Carolinas:
    • Jeremiah, a free black in Charleston, heard rumors of British intentions to "come to help the poor negroes."
    • He did not wait but organized one of several slave uprisings in the Carolinas during 17751775 and 17761776.
    • Jeremiah's plans were discovered, leading to his execution by hanging and burning at the stake in August 17751775 by pro-revolutionary authorities in South Carolina.
  • Lord Dunmore's Proclamation (November 1775):
    • Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia, under attack by rebels, fled Williamsburg.
    • From a British warship, he issued a proclamation declaring as free "all indented servants, Negroes, or others…free, that are able and willing to bear arms, they joining His Majesty's Troops as soon as may be."
    • Impact on Whites: The proclamation terrified white colonists.
    • Impact on Slaves: It transformed the slaves' perspective of the revolutionary struggle into one focusing on who would "give them their liberty."
    • Radical Implications: In South Carolina, where 80,00080,000 slaves constituted 6060 percent of the population, such a declaration of liberty represented a radical revolution.
  • Slaves Joining the British:
    • Between 800800 and 1,0001,000 slaves responded to Dunmore's invitation and joined the British army.
    • Dunmore formed them into the "Ethiopian Regiment," whose members wore sashes inscribed with "Liberty to Slaves."
    • Notable Incident: American Colonel Joseph Hutchings was captured by two of his own former slaves while serving with the British.
    • Slaves also joined the British upon their landings in Staten Island in 17761776 (affecting New York and New Jersey), when the Royal Navy sailed up rivers in Pennsylvania and Maryland, and during the attack on Charleston.
    • Roles of Runaway Slaves: They built forts, tended the wounded, carried supplies, and fought alongside white soldiers.
    • British Strategic Advantage: British generals recognized that recruiting slaves also served to disrupt the economies of the rebellious colonies.
    • Challenges and Outcomes: Black soldiers and their families faced terrible tolls from disease. Many were captured and re-enslaved, but the loyalty of others eventually secured their freedom.
      • Approximately 300300 former slaves sailed with Dunmore when he departed Virginia in 17761776.
      • By the war's end, British forces had relocated some 3,0003,000 more in Canada or West Africa.
  • African-Americans in the American Army:
    • The American army was considerably slower to enlist free blacks or slaves compared to the British.
    • However, African-Americans did serve among colonial troops early on at Lexington and Concord in 17751775. Lemuel Haynes, who served, later became a leading minister in Massachusetts.
    • Washington's Initial Hesitation: General Washington was reluctant to arm black soldiers, fearing backlash from white troops and the potential for armed black soldiers to spark a slave revolt.
    • Shift in Policy: By the grim winter of 1777−781777-78, with the Revolution in peril, Washington finally accepted black volunteers.
    • Rhode Island's Initiative (February 1778): Rhode Island offered freedom to "every able bodied Negro, Mulatto, or Indian Man slave in this state…to serve during the continuance of the present war with Great Britain."
      • Roughly one in four male slaves in Rhode Island eventually enlisted in Rhode Island's Black Regiment.
      • Those who survived the war were granted their freedom in 17831783.

Moving Toward Independence

  • Second Continental Congress (May 10, 1775): Delegates convened in Philadelphia, realizing the Battles of Lexington and Concord had fundamentally changed the situation, necessitating wartime management.
  • Formation of Continental Army: Congress moved to create a coordinated Continental Army.
  • Appointment of George Washington: George Washington, a respected member of Congress and a veteran of the French and Indian War, was the obvious choice to command the new army.
    • Washington took command of the colonial militia on July 2, 1775, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, shortly after the Battle of Bunker Hill, aiming for more coordinated American resistance.
  • Comparison of Forces:
    • Washington's Army: Commanded between 9,0009,000 and 14,00014,000 troops (numbers were uncertain). Described as a "ragtag army," adept at guerrilla fighting and showing great courage, but difficult to discipline, easily bored, and prone to desertion if the fighting prolonged.
    • Gage's British Force: Approximately 5,0005,000 highly disciplined soldiers in Boston. The Royal Navy held control of the water.
  • Funding the War: The Second Continental Congress began to secure funds, primarily through foreign loans, to support the army.
  • The Question of War Aims: A significant debate arose within Congress: What were they fighting for?
    • John Dickinson of Pennsylvania sought reconciliation with Britain, provided Parliament respected colonial rights.
    • John Adams and most Virginia delegates advocated for immediate independence.
    • Others remained undecided.
    • This debate lasted for a year before a resolution was reached.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense

  • Publication (January 1776): Thomas Paine, a recent arrival from England, published his influential pamphlet, Common Sense.
  • Circulation: Within a short period, over 100,000100,000 copies were in circulation.
  • Paine's Core Arguments:
    • Monarchy is an inherently flawed system of governance for people.
    • The time was opportune for the colonies to declare independence, proclaiming, "For God's sake, let us come to a final separation....The birthday of a new world is at hand."
  • Impact: Paine's "passionate words and exquisite timing" significantly shaped public opinion, swaying many towards independence.
  • Symbolic Coincidence: Common Sense was published on the same day King George III officially declared the North American colonies to be in a state of rebellion, highlighting the stark contrast in perspectives.
  • John Adams' Reaction: While Adams disagreed with Paine's "simple minded and needlessly antagonistic" style, he agreed with its conclusion and predicted that Common Sense would become the "common faith" of the nascent nation.

Declaring Independence, 1776

  • Motion for Independence (June 7, 1776): After months of debate, Richard Henry Lee, a Virginia delegate, put forth a resolution:
    • "Resolved...that these United Colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved."
    • The motion was immediately seconded by John Adams.
  • Initial Opposition and Changing Minds:
    • Delegates led by John Dickinson opposed the resolution, as many had initially hoped for reconciliation rather than permanent separation.
    • However, ongoing fighting with British troops and the widespread influence of publications like Common Sense changed numerous congressional minds.
  • Delay and Committee of Five: Congress agreed to postpone a vote on independence until July 1 but appointed the "Committee of Five" to draft a declaration in case the vote passed.
    • The committee members were Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston.
  • Drafting the Declaration of Independence:
    • Thomas Jefferson, known for his writing ability, was chosen to pen the first draft.
    • Adams, Franklin, and eventually the full Congress made adjustments, which reportedly frustrated Jefferson.
    • Key Amendments and Controversies:
      • Removal of Attack on Slave Trade: Jefferson's passionate denunciation of the slave trade was removed from the final document. This was seen as hypocritical given Jefferson's own slave ownership, and many other delegates had investments in the trade, making such language unacceptable.
      • Retention of "Indian Savages" Clause: The assertion that the king "has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages" was retained. Congress members were aware that frontier whites were invading Indian territory and the king's government sought to keep the two groups separate. However, frontier whites were considered "essential supporters of the patriot cause," and Congress chose not to antagonize them.
  • Final Votes and Adoption:
    • The waiting period before the vote proved effective, as by July 1776, no delegate wished to go on record as opposing independence.
    • July 2: A unanimous Congress voted for independence.
    • July 4: The Declaration of Independence was officially adopted.
  • Pivotal Opening Lines: The Declaration begins with profound statements:
    • "When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation."
    • "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."
  • Philosophical Resonance: The Declaration applied John Locke's philosophical ideas—originally used to justify England's shift in monarchs nearly a century prior—to announce the abolition of monarchy itself in England's former colonies.
  • Public Rejoicing: Celebrations included bonfires, ringing bells, and other public demonstrations of joy in Philadelphia. In New York City, a mob of soldiers and residents tore down the statue of King George III, whose metal was eventually melted down to produce bullets for the revolutionary cause. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops to boost morale.

The Articles of Confederation

  • Creation (1777): A year after declaring independence, Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation to serve as the governing document for the new and fragile country, now called the United States of America.
  • Nature of Government: It established a national government, albeit a weak one.
  • Ratification Process: 1111 of the colonies ratified the Articles within a year, but Maryland was the last to do so, not ratifying until 17811781.
  • Purpose: The Articles formalized an alliance among the states, which proved ultimately successful in prosecuting the war and governing the nation in the anticipated peace.
  • Structure and Limitations:
    • With the Declaration, the 1313 colonies declared themselves 1313 independent states, agreeing to cooperate for limited common purposes.
    • Representatives harbored a deep distrust of centralized government.
    • Under the Articles, there was no national executive or court system.
    • Congress could only raise money through taxes if every single state agreed.
  • Achievements: Despite its limitations, this form of government—more an alliance of independent states than a modern nation—successfully coordinated the revolutionary fight and secured victory.
  • Future Challenges: Whether such a government structure could effectively build a cohesive nation remained an open question.

George Washington and His Victorious Patchwork Army

  • Nature of the War: The American Revolution was a prolonged and bloody conflict between two significantly different armies.
  • American Forces:
    • Comprised Washington's "patchwork Continental Army" and various rebel militias.
    • Later received crucial support from troops from France and Spain.
    • Participation: Of approximately 350,000350,000 eligible men, around 200,000200,000 participated in some military activity throughout the war.
    • Turnover: High troop turnover meant no more than 25,00025,000 served at any one time.
  • British and Allied Forces:
    • Consisted of "extremely well-trained British troops."
    • Supported by organized units of Loyalist colonists (initially up to 8,0008,000, increasing throughout the war).
    • Included hired soldiers from Germany.
  • Key to American Success: Many factors contributed to the success of the "ragtag rebels" and their allies, most importantly their ability to survive as a fighting force despite British efforts to eliminate them.
  • Evolution of American Soldiers:
    • Early "Minute Men" (Lexington and Concord): Primarily farmers who owned their own weapons and were skilled marksmen, embodying the "citizen soldier" ideal.
    • Later Volunteers: As the war progressed and Washington sought to instill discipline, many early volunteers departed. They were replaced by recently indentured servants, impoverished transients, or individuals who chose military service over jail.
    • One colonial officer described the troops as a "wretched motley Crew."
  • Washington's Leadership: Washington was an effective, committed leader, consistently maintaining control even when others panicked.
  • Troop Conditions: Despite being "ill-trained, ill-fed, ill-clothed, and restless," these troops continued to fight, enduring the "horrors of battle...in all their hideousness," as one soldier recalled. These "often forgotten men" ultimately secured independence.
  • Women's Direct Roles in the War:
    • Camp Followers: Many women, including soldiers' wives and single women seeking adventure or survival, accompanied the armies.
    • Contributions: They carried water to the battlefield, fed and supported troops, nursed the wounded, and occasionally fought.
    • Notable Examples:
      • Mary Ludwig Hays (Molly Pitcher): Known for carrying water and allegedly loading her husband's cannon after he was wounded at the Battle of Monmouth in 17781778.
      • Deborah Sampson: Disguised herself as a man, joined the army, and fought for years before a doctor discovered her identity after she was wounded.
  • Washington's Defensive Strategy:
    • Washington recognized his army's inability to withstand direct, pitched battles against British regulars.
    • He informed Congress that his strategy would be to fight a defensive war and avoid any "general action" (large-scale engagements).
    • His primary objective was not a decisive victory, but rather to avoid a decisive loss.
    • Washington believed that the longer his army could remain intact and avoid major battles, the more likely the British would tire of the war.
    • He anticipated that the strict training and discipline of the British army might narrow their conception of warfare, giving his troops an advantage if they employed "nontraditional tactics" while skillfully avoiding capture or defeat.
  • Geographic Scope of the War: The Revolutionary War encompassed a vast area, spanning almost all 1313 colonies along the Atlantic coast, extending into British Canada, and reaching the Mississippi River valley.