BMC

1) Name parts of PNS (6)

  • Autonomic ns

  • Sympathetic ns

  • Somatic motor

  • Parasympathetic

  • Somatic sensory

  • Visceral sensory

  • Efferent/afferent needed

2) Describe the functional Classification of neurons (6)

  • They are small particles that transmit chemical or electrical impulses within the body, they consist of axons cell body and dendrites which neurotransmitters act on to pass the impulse throght the synaptic cleft between neurons, so from axon the to the cell body then the dendrites. They can be efferent which are motor neurons with long axons and short dendrites, which transmit message for effectors such as muscles, or they can be afferent which have long denrites and shorter axons to transmit sensory impulses to the brain, and finally association neurons or interneurons which have shorter axons and highly branched dendrites to connect motor neurons with sensory neurons.

Which process is the temporal lobe responsible for? (3)

  • The temporal lobe is responsible for the language and speaking region as well as the viewing process (cross view).

  • Visual memory, language, speak, selective listening

How are the basal ganglia involved in initiating movement? Which inhibitory NT is involved? (5+1)

  • Basal ganglia consists of 2 pathways, direct and indirect pathways have to do with motion

  • With the indirect pathway, the basal ganglia sends inhibiting factors to the thalamus to send a DON'T MOVE signal through release of GABA neurotransmitters from the striatum

  • With the direct pathway the basal ganglia receives signal from motor neurons that inhibit the sending of motion inhibition factors to the thalamus allowing motion (MOVE signal sent to thalamus) through glutamate neurotransmitter from the striatum

  • Mention GABA and striatum

What is the Stroop effect and which cortices are involved? (3)

  • The Stroop effect is when your brain is manipulated by different dialect options, stimulating one’s brain to do something and seeing whether a direct action is taken or whether the person will have a self-contradiction within his/her brain where

  • Delay in reaction

Describe the relative refractory period? (3)

  • It’s a period where the action potential repolarizes until it returns to the starting phase, no new action potential should initiate, only a much higher stimulus could initiate.

How do ions pass a membrane? (2)

  • Ions pass a membrane going through specified channels or through active transport

  • Facilitated transport

Where is the primary cerebral sensory cortex found? (1)

  • Behind central gurus

1)vagus: mixed
2)accessory: motor
3)what do u ask patient to do to diagnose epilepsy( 2 blanks)

  • How often

  • What Type

  • How long

  • When did your seizure(s) start?

  • How many seizures have you had?

  • Do you notice any changes prior to having a seizure?

  • How long did the seizure(s) last?- Have you been able to pinpoint any triggers?

  • Are you on any medications?

4) What is the innermost layer of dura mater that makes up the choroid plexus?

  • pia mater

  • Projects into the ventricles and ependymal lining making choroid plexus which makes the CSF

5) What happens when na+ channel opens ?

  • Depolarisation

6) What's the stage where another AP can’t occur no matter how strong the stimulus is?

  • Absolute Refractory period

Name the noxious stimulus and their neurotransmitters Damaged Tissue - Releases K+ and Bradykinin

  • this causes activation of Nocioreceptors (which stimulate substance P which have positive feedback)

  • Further activating thalamus through ST pathway, cerebral cortex, and causing pain

  • Releases ATP and Prostaglandins → Causes sensation on Nocireceptor which activates Substance P

2) Platelets

  • Releases serotonin

  • this causes activation of Nocioreceptors (which STimulate substance P which have pos feedback)

  • Further activating thalamus through ST pathway, cerebral cortex, and causing pain

3) Mast Cells

  • Releases Histamine

  • this causes activation of Nocioreceptors (which stimulate substance P which have pos feedback)

  • Further activating thalamus through spinothalamic pathway, cerebral cortex, and causing pain - Can be attacked by Substance P from neuroreceptor causing the release of Histamine as well

Damaged tissue release potassium and bradykinin which activates nocireceptors, which stimulates substance P, which leads to activation of thalamus, cerebral cortex, eventually causing pain.

Same for mast cells releasing histamine, and for platelets when releasing seretonin.

  1. Absence seizure test, asking patient to do what?

    • Ask about frequency of seizure and if any underlying conditions are present

    • Check eye movements and muscle tone

    • Altered consciousness or staring into blank space with little awareness

  2. What does the otolithic organs do

    • detects linear acceleration and gravity, they are called utricle and saccule

    • Otolith (Greek: stone), also called statoconium or otoconium or statolith

    • Calcium carbonate structure in the saccule or utricle of the vestibular system of vertebrates- Kinocillium and stereocilia connected by tip links

    • detect gravity and linear acceleration of head:

    • utricle – horizontal motion

    • saccule – vertical motion

Mechanism of Action
Hair Cells

  • Convert displacement due to head motion into neural firing

  • Innervated by afferents from the vestibular ganglion

  • Deflection toward Kinocilium = Increased firing rate (depolarisation)

  • Deflection away from Kinocilium = reduced firing rate (hyperpolarisation)

What to do for absence epilepsy for children

  • Take medical History

  • Conduct a physical examination

  • EEG

Cervical enlargement hands: C4-T1 upper limbs - hands
Lumbar enlargement: T11-L2 lower limbs - legs

What are the common factors between epilepsy, Parkinson's disease & Alzheimer’s disease?

  • Cognitive and behavioral changes

  • neurodegenerative diseases

  • cause anxiety and depression

  • affect quality of life

  • impair brain function

  • Slow and progressive, dementia

  • all affected by NT changes

    • PD (dopamine)

    • AD (ACH)

    • epilepsy (excite: glutamate, inhibit gabba)

    • AZ: memory loss

  • Name one hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease and explain it?

  1. Cholinergic hypothesis

    • Loss of cholinergic neurons and acetylcholine leading to cognitive decline.

  2. Tau hypothesis

    • Tau protein, which stabilizes microtobules, hyperphosphorylates, leading to formation of neurofibillary tangles, and those NFT tangles are considered to be toxic to neurons and could lead to neurodegeneration.

  3. Amyloid hypothesis

    • Beta amyloid plaque deposits are thought to cause neurodegeneration leading to alzheimer

  4. Noradrenergic hypothesis

    • Loss of noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus and noradrenaline is seen as cause of neurodegeneration and alzheimer disease

  • In PD, dopaminergic neurons are dead which cause less production of which neurotransmitter?

    • In Parkinson's disease (PD), the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra part of the brain leads to a decreased production of the neurotransmitter dopamine.

    • Dopamine is crucial for regulating movement, and its deficiency is responsible for the characteristic motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as tremors, stiffness, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and postural instability.

  • Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease, describe the consequences of loss of neuronal function, referring to the underlying pathophysiology (6)

    • Loss of neurons in substantia nigra

    • less dopamine produced

    • increased output from basal ganglia, this will inhibit the thalamus

    • treated with L-dopa which is a dopamine precursor that can cross the Blood brain barrier

    • also lewy bodies polymerized alpha-synuclein in cytoplasm

    • and parkin is involved in protein degradation

    • clinical sequence is bradykinesia due to reduced stimulation of motor cortex

  • Case: patient x is experiencing a number of symptoms (….) which type of epilepsy is this patient having? (Temporal) partial seizure (simple focal) flashing lights, smell

    • Generalized onset: affects both sides of the brain, can be motor (involving physical movements) or non-motor

    • Absence Seizure (petit mal) (non-motor): staring into space, sudden stop in movement, brief twitches, fluttering eyelids, EEG 3 spikes per second

    • Tonic Clonic (grand mal):
      Tonic stage: lose consciousness, body still, may fall to the floor
      Clonic stage: your limbs jerk

  • CJD is caused by?
    Prions - infectious agents made of protein

  • Gower’s sign is associated with?

    DMD - Duchenne muscular dystrophy
    Gower’s sign?

    • Typically seen in cases of pelvic muscles weakness or proximal muscle weakness

    • When the patient use all limbs to get up from the floor (using hands)

    • To check gowers sign, place the patient in the supine position and ask him to rise.
      Gower’s sign - an inability to lift the trunk without using the hands and arms to brace and push - indicates proximal muscle weakness

  • Structures that detect the gravity and linear acceleration of the head?
    Otolithic Organs

    • The otolith organs include the utricle and the saccule. The otolith organs are beds of sensory cells in the inner ear, specifically small patches of hair cells

    • Utricle horizontal

    • Saccule vertical

    • Sense gravity and linear acceleration such as from due to initiation of movement in a straight line

Extra: Semicircular canals - detect rotation of head (angular acceleration)

  • Speech production center in the brain:

    • Broca’s area

  • Language comprehension center in the brain:

    • Wernicke’s area

  • Cranial nerve IV is a sensory, motor or mixed nerve? (The question could be about any cranial nerve)
    The Cranial Nerves:

    • Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal

    • Sensory, Sensory, Motor, Motor, Both, Motor, Both, Sensory, Both, Both, Motor, Motor

  • Eye Cells:

    • horizontal and amacrine

  • What is the innermost layer of the dura mater that makes up the choroid plexus?

    • Pia Mater

  • What is the stroop effect?

    • The stroop effect is the delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli.

    • The effect has been used to create a psychological test that is widely used in clinical practice and investigation

  • What is the stroop test?

    • The most common demonstration of the Stroop Effect is through a color-word naming task.

    • In this task, words describing colors are printed in ink of a different color.

    • For example, the word "Red" might be printed in blue ink, and the word "Green" in red ink.

    • Participants are asked to name the color of the ink in which the words are printed, not the word itself.

  • What does the bone do?

    • Support

    • Protection (brain, internal organs)

    • Leverage

    • Storage (fats, minerals)

    • Blood cell synthesis

  • Impact of cartilage being avascular?

    • Limited healing capacity unlike tissues

    • more susceptible to degeneration