The Age of Railroads and Big Business

George Pullman: An influential figure in the railroad industry known for creating the Pullman sleeping car and establishing Pullman, Illinois, a model town for his workers.
Pullman Porters: African American men employed by Pullman to provide services to passengers in sleeper cars. They played a significant role in the railroad system and were pivotal in labor and civil rights movements.
Interstate Commerce Clause: A constitutional provision allowing Congress to regulate commerce among the states, particularly significant in regulating the railroad industry.

The growth of railroads benefited the nation by facilitating trade, migration, and the movement of resources, significantly contributing to the industrialization of America.
However, it also led to frustration among farmers, who often faced high shipping costs and were exploited by railroad monopolies.
This frustration necessitated government regulation, leading to legislation aimed at controlling railroad rates and practices, culminating in the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887.

George Pullman created a controlled environment that aimed to provide comfort and stability for laborers. He believed in offering quality housing and services, establishing what he called the "Pullman model."
Despite his intentions, Pullman was largely unaware of the actual needs and frustrations of his workers, leading to dissatisfaction regarding low wages and long hours.
This ignorance culminated in the Pullman Strike of 1894, where workers protested against wage cuts and high rents, demonstrating their grievances and calling for reform.

Pullman porters initially welcomed the employment opportunities created by George Pullman, as it provided stable jobs in a racially segregated society.
However, they also faced significant challenges, including long hours, low pay, and a lack of respect.
In response to these obstacles, Pullman porters began to organize, forming unions that sought to improve their working conditions and wages, ultimately leading to the establishment of early civil rights movements.

Strike: A work stoppage initiated by employees to express grievances or compel an employer to meet demands.
Sherman Antitrust Act: A landmark federal statute enacted in 1890 aimed at curtailing monopolistic business practices and promoting competition.
Fully Integrated Business Models: Organizational strategies employed by businesses like Carnegie Steel to control all aspects of production from raw materials to consumers.
Andrew Carnegie: An industrial giant known for leading the expansion of the American steel industry and employing innovative manufacturing techniques.
John D. Rockefeller: Founder of Standard Oil and a leading figure in the oil industry, known for his aggressive business tactics and monopoly establishment.
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Workers: Laborers in a garment factory in New York City, whose tragic deaths in a 1911 fire highlighted the need for better working conditions and labor rights.

John D. Rockefeller employed innovative techniques such as horizontal integration to dominate the oil industry, leading to lowered prices and increased availability of oil products, benefiting consumers.
Andrew Carnegie advanced the steel industry through vertical integration, achieving efficiency and cost reduction, which in turn helped to support the growing demand for steel in construction and manufacturing.

The expansion of industries such as oil and steel resulted in the consolidation of big business entities, leading to vast wealth and power concentrations.
As working conditions deteriorated due to this expansion, laborers began forming unions, seeking collective bargaining rights to improve wages, hours, and safety conditions.
The call for government regulation was prompted by the need to foster competition and mitigate monopolistic practices, culminating in legislative efforts such as the Sherman Antitrust Act, aimed at protecting the rights of consumers and small businesses.

The narratives of the Pullman Strikes and union formations illustrate the broader ethical implications of labor rights, highlighting the need for humane working conditions and the ongoing struggle for civil rights within labor movements.
The development of regulations like the Sherman Antitrust Act denotes the balance between free enterprise and public interests, showcasing the ethical responsibility businesses hold towards society.

The rise of unions among laborers set a precedent for contemporary labor rights movements, influencing modern policies regarding workplace safety and the establishment of workers' rights.
The historical context of the railroads and big business fosters discussions about current corporate practices, monopolies, and their regulations in today’s economy.