Study Guide- Unit Test 1
American Dream – The belief that anyone, no matter their background, can achieve success and a better life through hard work and opportunity.
Conservative – Someone who favors limited government, traditional values, and more personal responsibility.
Democracy – A system of government where power comes from the people, usually through voting.
Direct Democracy – Citizens vote on laws and decisions themselves, instead of electing representatives.
Government – The system or group of people that makes and enforces laws for a country or community.
Indirect Democracy – Citizens elect representatives who make decisions and laws on their behalf (also called a republic).
Liberal – Someone who supports government action to improve society, expand rights, and solve social problems.
Libertarian – Someone who believes in maximum personal freedom and very little government involvement in people’s lives.
Majority Rule – The idea that the decision supported by more than half the people is followed.
Mayflower Compact – An agreement made by the Pilgrims in 1620 to form a self-governing community, one of the first steps toward democracy in America.
Moderate – A person whose political views are in the middle, not strongly liberal or conservative.
Monarchy – A government ruled by a king or queen.
Natural Law – The belief that people have rights given by nature or God, not by governments.
Oligarchy – A government ruled by a small, powerful group of people.
Personal Liberty – The freedom for individuals to act and think as they choose, as long as they don’t harm others.
Political Culture – The shared values, beliefs, and attitudes about government and politics in a society.
Political Equality – The idea that all people have the same political rights and opportunities (like voting).
Political Ideology – A set of beliefs about the role of government and how society should work (ex: liberal, conservative).
Politics – The process of making decisions about government, laws, and policies.
Popular Consent – The belief that government gets its power only when people agree to be governed.
Popular Sovereignty – The idea that the people are the ultimate source of government’s power.
Republic – A type of government where citizens elect representatives to make decisions for them.
Social Conservative – A person who believes government should promote traditional family values and moral standards.
Social Contract – The theory that people give up some freedoms to government in exchange for protection of rights.
Totalitarianism – A system where the government has total control over all aspects of people’s lives.
Anti-Federalist – People who opposed the Constitution in 1787 because they feared a strong central government would take away individual rights.
Articles of Confederation – America’s first government after independence; weak central government, most power in states.
Bill of Rights – The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, protecting freedoms like speech, religion, and due process.
Checks and Balances – System where each branch of government (legislative, executive, judicial) can limit the power of the others.
Committees of Correspondence – Colonial groups before the Revolution that spread news and coordinated resistance against Britain.
Confederation – A system where states keep most of the power and the central government is weak.
Constitution – The supreme law of the U.S. that outlines government structure and citizens’ rights.
Declaration of Independence – Document (1776) declaring the colonies free from Britain, written mainly by Thomas Jefferson.
Enumerated Powers – Powers specifically given to Congress in the Constitution (ex: declare war, coin money).
Federal System – A government where power is divided between national and state governments.
The Federalist Papers – Essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay to support ratifying the Constitution.
Federalist – Supporters of the Constitution who wanted a stronger central government.
First Continental Congress – Meeting in 1774 where colonies discussed British policies and organized boycotts.
Full Faith and Credit Clause – Part of the Constitution requiring states to respect other states’ laws and court decisions.
Great Compromise – Agreement at the Constitutional Convention: Congress would have two houses (Senate = equal, House = population).
Implied Powers – Powers not written directly in the Constitution but allowed under the “necessary and proper” clause.
Mercantilism – Economic system where colonies exist to benefit the mother country (Britain).
Necessary and Proper Clause – Part of the Constitution giving Congress flexibility to make laws needed to carry out its powers.
New Jersey Plan – Plan at the Constitutional Convention favoring small states; wanted equal representation in Congress.
Second Continental Congress – Meeting in 1775 that managed the Revolutionary War and wrote the Declaration of Independence.
Separation of Powers – Division of government into three branches to prevent tyranny.
Shay’s Rebellion – Uprising of farmers in 1786 showing the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
Stamp Act Congress – 1765 meeting of colonies to protest British taxes, step toward unity.
Supremacy Clause – States that the U.S. Constitution and federal laws are the highest law of the land.
Three-Fifths Compromise – Agreement that each enslaved person counted as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxes.
Virginia Plan – Constitutional proposal favoring large states; wanted representation based on population.
Constitution – Articles 1–7 – Sections of the Constitution explaining powers of each branch, states, amendment process, and ratification.
Critical Period – Time under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) when the U.S. was weak and struggling.
Electoral College – System used to elect the U.S. president; voters choose electors, electors choose president.
Inherent Powers – Powers the national government naturally has (like controlling borders or foreign policy).
Aristocracy – Government ruled by the wealthy or noble class.
Block Grant – Federal money given to states for general purposes with flexibility in how it’s spent.
Categorical Grants – Federal money given to states for specific purposes (like building highways or schools).
Charter – A legal document granting permission to create a government or colony.
Civil War – War (1861–1865) between the North (Union) and South (Confederacy) over slavery and states’ rights.
Concurrent Powers – Powers shared by both national and state governments (like taxing).
Cooperative Federalism – Federal and state governments working together to solve problems (ex: New Deal programs).
Confederation – (repeat from #31) A weak central government where states hold most power.
Dillon’s Rule – Local governments only have powers that states give them.
Dual Federalism – System where state and federal governments stay mostly separate (“layer cake federalism”).
Federal System – (repeat from #35) Division of power between national and state governments.
Great Society – Programs by President Lyndon Johnson in the 1960s to fight poverty and racial injustice.
New Deal – Programs by President Franklin Roosevelt in the 1930s to fight the Great Depression.
Nullification – The idea that states can cancel (nullify) a federal law they don’t like (later ruled unconstitutional).
Progressive Federalism – Modern system where states sometimes set their own policies and the federal government allows it (ex: marijuana laws).
Reconstruction – Period after the Civil War when southern states were rebuilt and freed slaves gained rights.
Reserved Powers – Powers kept by the states under the 10th Amendment (like education, marriage laws).
Secession – The act of leaving a country (ex: Southern states leaving the Union in 1860–61).
Court Cases: Need to know- Case basics and ruling.
74. Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Background: William Marbury sued because he didn’t receive his government job papers after Thomas Jefferson became president.
Question: Can the Supreme Court force government officials to deliver appointments?
Ruling: The Court said it could not force it—but more importantly, the Court declared that a part of the law Marbury used was unconstitutional.
Importance: Established judicial review (the Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional).
75. Shelby County v. Holder (2013)
Background: Parts of the Voting Rights Act required certain states with histories of discrimination to get federal approval before changing voting laws. Shelby County, Alabama challenged this.
Question: Is it constitutional to require only some states to get federal approval for voting changes?
Ruling: The Court struck down the formula that decided which states needed approval.
Importance: Weakened the Voting Rights Act, allowing states more freedom to change voting laws (like voter ID requirements).
76. Barron v. Baltimore (1833)
Background: John Barron claimed Baltimore damaged his property (a wharf) and said it violated his 5th Amendment rights.
Question: Does the Bill of Rights apply to state governments?
Ruling: The Court said no, the Bill of Rights only applied to the federal government at that time.
Importance: Showed that originally, rights protections were only against the federal government (later changed with the 14th Amendment).
77. Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
Background: Dred Scott, an enslaved man, sued for freedom after living in free states.
Question: Could an enslaved person become free by living in a free state, and did Black Americans have rights as citizens?
Ruling: The Court ruled against Scott, saying enslaved people were property, not citizens, and Congress couldn’t ban slavery in territories.
Importance: Increased tensions over slavery and helped push the nation toward the Civil War.
78. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Background: Two steamboat operators fought over who had the right to run boats in New York waters.
Question: Who controls interstate commerce (trade between states)—states or Congress?
Ruling: The Court said Congress has power over interstate commerce under the Constitution.
Importance: Strengthened federal power over the economy.
79. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Background: Maryland tried to tax a branch of the U.S. national bank.
Question: Can Congress create a national bank? Can a state tax it?
Ruling: Yes, Congress can create a bank under the necessary and proper clause, and no, states cannot tax the federal government.
Importance: Expanded federal power and reinforced the idea that the Constitution gives implied powers.
This ruling affirmed the supremacy of federal laws over state laws, thereby establishing a precedent for the future balance of power between state and national governments.
80. Federalist No. 10 (James Madison, 1787)
Main Idea: Factions (groups of people with strong interests) are dangerous, but they can’t be removed without taking away liberty.
Solution: A large republic will control factions better because no single group can dominate.
Importance: Defends the Constitution, showing how it protects against mob rule and tyranny of majority.
81. Federalist No. 51 (James Madison, 1788)
Main Idea: Government needs separation of powers and checks and balances so no branch becomes too powerful.
Quote idea: “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”
Importance: Justifies the structure of the Constitution and how it prevents tyranny.
82. Federalist No. 78 (Alexander Hamilton, 1788)
Main Idea: Defends the federal judiciary and argues for judicial review.
Judges should have lifetime terms to remain independent and fair.
Importance: Lays groundwork for the power of the Supreme Court (later confirmed in Marbury v. Madison).
83. Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist, 1787)
Main Idea: Opposes the Constitution, warning that a large republic will become too powerful and take away liberty.
Believed states should keep most of the power.
Feared that a distant central government wouldn’t understand the people’s needs.
Importance: Shows Anti-Federalist concerns that led to adding the Bill of Rights.
1.1 Ideals of Democracy
Popular Sovereignty → Government power comes from the people.
Natural Rights → John Locke’s idea that people are born with rights (life, liberty,
property). Jefferson adapted this as “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
Social Contract → People agree to form governments that protect rights; citizens
can overthrow abusive governments.
Republicanism → Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their
behalf.
Limited Government → Government power is restricted to protect against
tyranny.
1.2 Types of Democracy
• Participatory Democracy → Broad participation by citizens (e.g., referendums,
protests).
• Pluralist Democracy → Policy shaped by competing interest groups (e.g., NRA,
NAACP).
• Elite Democracy → Power in the hands of the wealthy/educated (e.g., Electoral
College, campaign donors).
1.3 Government Power and Individual Rights
• Federalists → Supported strong central government (Hamilton, Madison).
• Anti-Federalists → Wanted more state power, feared tyranny, demanded Bill of
Rights.
• Bill of Rights → First 10 amendments protecting freedoms like speech, press,
religion, due process.
1.4 Challenges of the Articles of Confederation
• Weak national government with most power in states.
• No executive or national judiciary.
• No power to tax or regulate commerce.
• Amendments required unanimous approval.
• Shays’ Rebellion revealed inability to maintain order.
1.5 Ratification of the U.S. Constitution
• Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists → Debate over strong central government.
• The Federalist Papers → Essays supporting Constitution.
• Federalist No. 10 → Large republic guards against factions.
• Federalist No. 51 → Checks and balances prevent tyranny.
• Compromise: Constitution ratified with Bill of Rights.
1.6 Principles of American Government
• Separation of Powers → 3 branches of government.
• Checks and Balances → Each branch limits the others.
• Federalism → Division of power between state & national gov.
• Popular Sovereignty → People are the source of authority.
• Republicanism → People elect representatives.
• Limited Government → Government only acts within constitutional limits.
• Difference between Politics and Government.
o Lasswell and Easton
1.7 Relationship between States and National Government
• Dual Federalism (“Layer Cake”) → Clear division of power.
• Cooperative Federalism (“Marble Cake”) → Shared responsibilities.
• Supremacy Clause → Federal law > State law.
• 10th Amendment → Powers not given to federal gov. reserved for states.
• Full Faith & Credit Clause → States honor each other’s laws.
• Extradition Clause → Return fugitives to state of crime.
1.8 Constitutional Interpretations of Federalism
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) → Expanded federal power (Necessary & Proper
Clause, Supremacy Clause).
• U.S. v. Lopez (1995) → Limited federal power (restricted Commerce Clause).
1.9 Federalism in Action
• Fiscal Federalism → Federal influence through money.
• Categorical Grants → Strict requirements (e.g., highway funds tied to drinking
age).
• Block Grants → States have flexibility (e.g., welfare programs).
• Mandates → Federal orders states must follow (funded or unfunded).
o Examples: Medicaid, No Child