Society is built on freedom and choice and individuals focus on their own wants and needs (pursue their own self interests)we no longer conform to societal norms and values it is no longer an expectation to get married so People can choose to have children outside of it.this is made further possible because it is no longer frowned upon (no stigma attached)

Beck and giddens - individualisation thesis

Negotiated families - don’t conform to transitional nuclear

Pure relationships- relationships fulfil own needs - choice

View:positive view - shows progression in society and more choice

2) The New Right

Charles Murray views it as a negative feature of society and warrants the term ‘illegitimate’. This trend of births outside of marriage and panic surrounding teenage pregnancy in Britain is proof to him that the family is in decline and promiscuity is on the rise.

The New Right believe it should be discouraged by the Government through laws and policies such as reducing benefits which act as financial perverse incentives for this type of family.

This will further increase lone parenthood and be the cause of social ills such as juvenile delinquency,poverty and educational underachievement.

Benson supports Murray as he found cohabiting couples were more unstable and likely to break up in the first 3 years of their baby’s life (20%) compared to married couples (6%)

This would mean children born outside of marriage would be more likely to spend time with one parent when they split. This can negatively impact early years development and educational attainment along with health outcomes. This has meant the New Right strongly support traditional family values and marriage as a stable institution.

Feminists

View:positive

Undermines patriarchy and shows women have more choice over if and when they have a child.Feminists would see this as evidence of women escaping the patriarchal nuclear family which is patriarchal due to the family expecting the women to uphold the expressive role ( Delphy and Leonard) institution Of marriage suggests the woman is owned by men as they take their last name and the existence of domestic abuse (dobash and dobash)they’re now more financially independent as they develop their careers so they can support themselves and the child without depending on the man.

Conclusion

What some of the concerns over births outside marriage perhaps ignore is that 60% of births outside of marriage are jointly registered on birth certificates by both parents who live at the same address.

This suggests that many births outside of marriage occur within cohabiting relationships that resemble a nuclear family.

Three quarters of all children are brought up by two parents - suggesting, like Chester does, that there is no ‘great’ change in the family. Chester would emphasise that statistics such as births outside of marriage represent a “SNAPSHOT” that ignores the life cycle of individuals within families.

Lone parenthood

A Lone parent family is a mother or father living with dependent child(ren) but without a partner. Partner in this definition refers to either a marriage or cohabitation partner.

Lone parent families make up 25% of all families with children in 2023. This is an upwards trend.

1 in 4 children live in a lone parent family.90% of these are headed by mothers

We are seeing a steady increase in lone parent fathers.

A child living in a lone parent family is twice as likely to be in poverty compared to those living with two parents.

View:Positive View

Rise of single parenthood is a symptom of increased tolerance of diverse family norms.postmodernism

view:Positive View

Most lone parent families are headed by women because they are single by choice. They may not wish to marry or cohabit.

found that professional women were able to support their child without the father’s involvement.feminism

view:Positive View

Feminists see lone parenthood as an alternative to the patriarchal nuclear family and is consistent with their increased financial independence.

Cashmore states:

“given the darker side of family life and the unseen ways in which the nuclear unit serves ‘male power’ rather than the interests of women, the idea of parents breaking free of marriage and raising children single - handed has its appeals”.

Evaluation

But, the positive view suggests that people are choosing single parenthood. Yet, research suggests that only a minority of these pregnancies are planned.

A large number of single parents do not see their situation as ideal and most aspire to form a two-parent household.

This is further supported by evidence that single parenthood lasts around 5 years on average. Thus, it is not a choice, just a period of the family life cycle.

Negative View

New Right thinker Charles Murray see the rise as a result of an overly generous welfare state which provides perverse incentives to get pregnant. For example, housing benefits, universal credit, child benefit etc.

This creates a underclass and dependency culture in which people assume that the state will support them and their children.

Consider the evaluations of the New Right below and explain how this argument can be used against their claims:

Government research from 1998 stated that 85% of lone parents would like to gain employment

Single parents who are reliant on benefits tend to live in poor housing and have low standards of living. Thus, little incentive.

Higher levels of unemployment and poverty amongst lone parents is not down to attitudes and values but due to:

• Lack of affordable childcare

• Many fathers failing to pay child maintenance

Conclusions

Whatever your view on why single parenthood has increased and whether this is seen as a positive or negative trend there is little doubt that low living standards are associated with single parents which may be a better explanation for difference in educational achievement or behaviour.

It is also too simplistic to assume that the child only interacts and sees one parent in a lone parent family. It is also too simplistic to ignore the dark side of the family which can equally occur in a nuclear family with married parents.

Reconstituted families

Many lone parents find new partners and form new families.These reconstituted families or stepfamilies are defined as a married or cohabiting couple with dependent children at least one of whom is not the biological offspring of both partners.

There has been little research into reconstituted families, as they tend to look like ‘normal’ nuclear families and are seen as a ‘solution’ to the problem on lone parenthood.

Stepfamilies account for 10% of all families with dependent children

Statistics show an increase in reconstituted families

Increase in divorce - individualisation,secularisation,life expectancy

Increase in remarriage- secularisation and individualisation

In 85% of step families, at least one child is from the woman’s previous relationship

Men don’t have custody - chivalry thesis women more likely to get custody by courts

Men can abandon the child mum has maternal responsibilities man has no commitment so can leave

9 out of 10 cases women gets custody

Positive View

Ferri and Smith found that step-families are similar to first families in all major respects.

In a sense, the rise of reconstituted families supports the view that the nuclear family is still the norm as they do the same things.

Negative View

Ferri and Smith also found however that there is a greater risk of poverty due to stepfathers potentially having to support children from a previous relationship

Negative View

Allan and Crow found that a quarter of step- families break up in their first year with half of all remarriages that form a stepfamily ending in divorce.They suggest this is because they face particular tensions which the nuclear does.

Neutral View

McCarthy et al conclude that there is so much diversity amongst reconstituted families that we should talk about ‘stepfamilies’ plural rather than ‘the step family’.Views of the Increase in Reconstituted Families Some have tensions some do not. Those that do, their tensions aren’t always that different from those in intact families.

Note