Copy of AP Test Study Guide - Chronological

Pre-Columbian America:

Aztec & Incan Empires - Large empires in central & south America respectively that rivaled European powers in size and influence

Cahokia - Large city near modern day St. Louis that was the center of trade. It had labor, wealth and class differentiation.

Maize - Corn production meant that Indian societies could stay in one place longer and not need as much land as hunting & gathering societies. Allows for urbanization to grow.

Clovis Technology - Use of flint for arrowheads. Allows for hunting of big game.

What role did geography & climate play in early Indian civilizations? Remember, Native people adapted to their environment to live. Examples:

-Building of adobe dwellings in the SW and usage of irrigation where water was scarce.

-warm wet SE climate good for large scale farming, develop commercial centers.

-NE hunting, smaller farms, allows for urbanization.

Europe in the 15th Century:

Compass - New tech to gauge direction, this helps Euros travel farther

Sugar - Cash crop that caused Euros to want to expand

Caravel - New kind of ship that could sail into the wind easier

Sextant - Device that allowed navigators to keep track of their global positioning

Absolute Monarchs - Rulers who had absolute power and competed with other monarchs

Capitalism - Free market economics, part of Euro expansion is the need for resources and wealth

Henry VIII - King of England who brings about the protestant reformation

Protestant Reformation - Started by Luther who believed that you could get to heaven by faith alone. Also people critical of the corruption in the Catholic Church, like indulgences.

Martin Luther - Brings about the protestant reformation

John Calvin - Swiss Theologian who wrote about pre-destination

What were the conditions in Europe that made colonization possible?

-People suffered in rural poverty, religious & political oppression, life expectancy was short, few people owned most wealth, etc...

Spanish Colonization:

Encomienda - Spanish labor system that used Native people for labor for a short period of time

role of the Catholic Church - Many Catholics believed in “civilizing” native people, which essentially meant treating them inferior and justified using some as slaves. Many reformists also came from the Catholic Church.

Mercantilism - Economic system where colonies were used to enrich the mother country. Colonies were required to produce raw materials and buy back finished goods.

Triangular Trade - Trade between Africa, Europe & the new world. Africa sold the labor, Colonies provided raw material & the mother country produced finished goods.

How were the Spanish able to conquer native civilizations?

Fear - They rode horses and dressed in shiny armor

Technology - Use of armor & firearms

Disease - Microbes brought by Europeans to the new world had devastating effects on native populations.

What were Spanish motivations for colonization?

Mostly obtain wealth, with by mining for gold or establishing cash crop agriculture that woud

Compare & Contrast English, French & Spanish colonization

France - Few colonies and few people. They tended to get along better with the Indians because they showed less interest in acquiring native land

Britain - Britain settled her colonies. Large numbers of British subjects (and other NW Europes) came to establish colonies for varying reasons: religion, cash crop agriculture, etc…

Development of the Chesapeake Region:

Headright System - Gave 50 acres of land to property owners who brought over indentured servants. This created a large landed aristocracy.

Freedom Dues - Land (25-50 acres) given to Indentured Servants after their indenture was up.

Jamestown - First permanent settlement in English America. Began to prosper with the introduction of tobacco.

Indentured Servitude - Predominant form of labor in the colonies in the 1600s. People would agree to serve 5-7 year indentures in exchange for passage to America

Bacon’s Rebellion - 1676 rebellion in Virginia that saw frontier settlers march on Jamestown and burn it down. They felt ignored by the colonial government. This helped grow slavery because elites in Virginia began to fear mob rule.

Slavery - Labor system that emerged in the western hemisphere. In the 1600s in British America. Chattel slavery stripped slaves of all rights.

Cash crops - Crops grown on a large scale in the south that could fetch heavy profits (tobacco & sugar especially, but also indigo, cotton in the 1800s)

Maryland - Catholic colony that eventually was overrun by protestants

Slave Codes - Developed in the 17th century, they restricted the rights of black slaves by taking away civil and economic rights.

Stono Rebellion - Rebellion in 1739 in South Carolina that caused colonies in the south to further limit freedoms for slaves, especially literacy and movement.

Explain the development of slavery in the second half of the 17th & early 18th centuries.

Slavery expanded in the southern colonies as cash crop agriculture expanded. When life expectancy expanded it made investing in slaves more sense economically. Coupled with the rising price of Indentured servants and the fear of mobs created by Bacon’s Rebellion, slavery grew in the last quarter of the 1600s.

Compare & Contrast life in the Chesapeake to life in New England.

Life in NE was longer, but the growing season was shorter. Slavery was legal in NE but not terribly prevalent. People immigrated as families to NE and learned how to read and write. NE was also more religious (puritanism vs. Anglican) and democratic than the south.

Development of New England:

Pilgrims - Puritan separatists, they were the first to come to the colonies

Puritans - Most Puritans wanted to purify the Anglican Church, not get rid of it. Believed in pre-destination and getting rid of any remnants of Catholicism.

Half-Way Covenant - Puritans agreed to baptize young people into the church without communion or full membership in 1662. Shows them losing their grip on their conformity.

Salem Witch trials - Sign that society had deep conflict and was changing. Was more prosperous and growing away from their original religious mission and deeply conflicted.

John Winthrop - First Governor of Massachusetts Bay, he wanted to make it a “Shining City Upon a Hill”

Rhode Island - Colony founded by Roger Williams that became a bastion for dissenters

Anne Hutchinson & Roger Williams - Religious dissidents in Mass Bay who left for Rhode Island

What role did religion play in New England society? - Not a theocracy but the church sets the standards and rules for society and government, which was democratic, and governments job was to uphold those values. People were literate because they needed to read the bible. etc...

How does the economy in New England develop differently than in other parts of British North America and why? - The soil is rocky and the weather is cold so cash crop agriculture never really took root. Slavery was legal but rare. New Englanders diversified their economy. Most were small farmers but they developed iron foundries, fishing, timber, shipbuilding, ect...

Middle Colonies:

Quakers - Settled in Pennsylvania & other middle colonies. Practiced tolerance & golden rule.

Religious toleration - William Penn had been persecuted for his beliefs so he believed in religious toleration.

Commerce - Two largest ports in the colonies (Philly & NY) were in the middle colonies. They exported food, cash crops, etc...

What characteristics of the middle colonies made them different from New England and the South? - More religious toleration because it was much more diverse than New England. Also, were able to grow some cash crops but not as much as the southern colonies, but slavery was less prominant than in the south.

Colonial Governments:

House of Burgesses - Assembly in Virginia, it was the first democratic institution in the new colonies, helping set a precedent for democratic rule.

Town Meetings - Direct democracy practiced in New England, probably most democratic in the world

Mayflower Compact - Agreement between colonists on the Mayflower to live by a set of rules. Helps set precedent for Constitutional government.

Colonial legislatures - democratically elected lower houses of colonial governments. In most colonies they levied taxes and paid officials, giving them enormous power.

Royal Governor - Typically appointed by the King and was chief executive for a colony

Council - Upper house of legislature as well as the Court in some colonies. Many times appointed by the Governor.

3 Branches of Government - Most colonies believed in dividing government between 3 branches.

How did the British policy of Salutary Neglect influence the development of colonial governments? - The British left Americans alone for much of the 1600s and early 1700s which allowed the colonists to develop their own ideas about government and to usurp power at the legislative level to be able to thwart the Crown when it tried to end Salutary Neglect after 1763.

First Great Awakening: Less emphasis on predestination and more on personal salvation through Jesus Christ and repentance of ones sin.

George Whitefield - British minister who came to America and helped spread the Awakening.

Expansion of higher education - Colonists saw an increase in church membership and a need to train more ministers so they formed more universities. The Awakening was also questioning existing doctrine, which helped set the precedent for questioning Royal authority later.

new religious sects - Baptist, Methodists, other older denominations like Prebyterians and Congregationalists split over the Awakening.

Old & New Lights - Old Lights rejected the evangelical nature of the Awakening and New Lights embraced it.

To what extent was the Great Awakening a unifying force in American society? - Not everyone agreed with the doctrine of the Awakening, but all Americans experienced the Awakening as a social phenomenon. It led to increased literacy, more training in higher education, and a questioning of established authority.

French & Indian War:

Ft. Duquesne - French fort in modern day Pittsburgh. Both Britain & France were interested in controlling the trade in the area.

Fall of Quebec - British victory that helps turn the tide in the war.

Louisbourg - Capture of Louisbourg, mostly by Americans, gave colonists a sense of pride in helping with the war.

Proclamation of 1763 - After the war Americans hoped to head west for new land but the Proclamation said they could not go. Americans resented this as they saw the land as being bought with their blood.

Pontiac’s Rebellion - Indian rebellion in the Great lakes region that convinced the British to pass the Proclamation of 1763 to stop settlers from going over the mountains.

In what ways did the British & American colonists find that they were different during the war?

Americans were more pious and typically more middle class than their British counterparts. Americans also were not trained soldiers like the British and had a reputation for doing poorly on the battlefield. Americans also deeply believed in self government and limited government, resenting the strict rules of the regular British army. Americans also smuggles supplies in during the war while Britain suppressed supplies, demanded colonial service in the army and demoted colonial officers, all creating animosity.

American Revolution:

Stamp Act - 1765. Tax on printed items in the colonies. Affected everyone and was passed without colonists consent. Also, sending violators to Admiralty courts was seen as a miscarriage of justice

Sugar Act - 1764. Act for raising revenue in the colonies who paid little in taxes. Taxed molasses and impacted mostly merchants, but passed without colonial consent and Admiralty courts applied here too

Quartering Act - Forced colonial communities to house and feed British soldiers. Standing armies were seen a instruments of tyranny and were resented by colonists

Stamp Act Congress 1765- Colonial response to the Stamp Act. Argued against taxation without representation and said only external taxes were acceptable. Colonies resisting together.

Townshend Duties 1767 - External tax on glass, paper, tea, etc… American colonists resisted this as well as a tax passed without their consent

Boston Massacre - 1770 shooting of colonists that is portrayed as a massacre by American propaganda, in order to show the British as tyrants.

Boston Tea Party - 1773 Following the passage of the Tea Act, Colonists dumped the tea into the Harbor in opposition to a British monopoly. This leads to the passage of the Coercive Acts.

Intolerable Acts - 1774 Americans called them the Intolerable Acts. Closing of Boston Port, shutting down government in Massachusetts, and a new Quartering Act was confirmation to many colonists that the British were out to take away their liberties and rights as Englishmen.

Opposition thinkers - British thinkers who believed that there was a conspiracy in the British government to take away the liberties of common people through taxation and increased bureaucracy. Saw taxes as a way to take property from people, therefore it required their consent. Argued that direct, not virtual, representation was the only acceptable way to tax people.

Enlightenment - Ideological movement that embraced science, reasoning & rationality. It influenced the founders view of government.

John Locke - Scottish philosopher who believed in the consent of the governed and that taxation could only come from representatives directly elected by the people.

Consent of the Governed - Government had to come from the votes of the people. Majority rule.

Committees of Correspondence - Committees in the colonies that communicated with each other in order to resist together.

Continental Congress - Most colonies sent representatives to the CC which advocated for moderation until 1776. This is the colonies coming together to resist the British.

Quebec Act - 1774. Took away representative government in formerly French Canada & made Catholicism official. Horrified the colonists as another example of the conspiracy to crush their liberties.

Admiralty Courts - Courts of the empire that colonists despised because they were not representative of the their ideas about juries of their peers.

How did British policies strengthen colonist’s views of republicanism?

Colonists believed deeply in self government and limited government by principled people (people that were disinterested). British policies all seemed to be designed to take away property or liberty of colonists without their consent. They were opposed to monarchy and believed that power came from citizens through their consent.

What role did Opposition thinkers play in how Americans understood British policies?

Americans widely read Opposition thinkers from Britain. Taxation policies as well as Quartering Acts and things like the Boston Massacre confirmed to many colonists that their was a conspiracy in the British government to take away the liberty of Americans.

In what ways had Americans developed their own identity by the 1770s?

Americans began to believe that they were different from the British. The French & Indian War had brought the two sides into direct contact for the first time and Americans tended to be more middle class and pious than their British counterparts. In America, there was also more religious freedom, no hereditary aristocracy, land was easily available, and very few barriers to prosperity. Americans also embraced ideas of self government, and limited government, and began to see their society as better than that of the mother country.

The Revolutionary War:

Declaration of Independence - Formally declared America’s independence using the argument of the consent of the governed

Saratoga - American victory in 1777 that convinced France to join the war on our side

Franco-American Alliance - The French were instrumental in helping the US win the war. They provided, money, men, arms and ships to the US cause.

Yorktown - US laid siege to Yorktown and forced Cornwallis to surrender, convincing the British to sue for peace.

Treaty of Paris 1783 - Formally ended the war and gave America everything east of the Mississippi and north of Florida

Loyalists - Tories/Loyalists were colonists who remained loyal to Britain. They made up about 20% of the population and many of them were forced out of the US after the war.

Common Sense - Widely read pamphlet printed by Thomas Paine that argued for American Independence in early 1776 as common sense that and island should not rule a continent.

Regulators (east/west conflict) - Regulator movements were westerners who spoke out against the influence of easterners in colonial governments. In many cases they openly rebelled against the colonial government because of grievances. Examples are the Paxton Boys in PA, Shay’s Rebellion in MA, or the Green Mountain Boys in VT.

How revolutionary was the American Revolution?

The Revolution did little in the short term for women and minorities, but unleashed a flurry of democratic impulses that eventually swept the nation (and the world to some extent). The idea that all men were created equal and that US society offered immense opportunities meant that the US was developed with deep democratic ideals that are shared among all citizens eventually.

What role did Ben Franklin & George Washington play in winning American independence?

Franklin was the diplomat who convinced France to enter the war on America’s side, and GW is the indispensable man of the Revolution. His leadership helps get America through the revolution, but also in the formative years of the Republic.

Confederation Period:

Whig Principles - Idea that a strong central government in a far away place was dangerous. The Founders believed that smaller government, closer to he people was better.

Republicanism - Belief that leaders needed to sacrifice their own self interest for the good of the whole, or good of the nation. This is “disinterestedness”

Articles of Confederation - First federal government was set up using this. It was founded on Whig Principles where most of the power remained with the states

Shay’s Rebellion - Rebellion of farmers in western Massachusetts that the federal government could not put down. This helped lead to the movement to write a new constitution with a stronger central government

Northwest Ordinance - Passed by the Congress under the Articles of Confederation, it organized the area then considered the NW (OH, MI, WI, IL, IN). It laid out requirements for statehood (all states came in as equals), banned slavery, and required funding for education.

What foreign policy issues concerned many Americans?

-The British refused to leave forts in the Great Lakes regions as well as harassed merchant ships and impressed US sailors, The Spanish would close off New Orleans to trade and incite Indian violence in the SW.

What economic issues concerned many Americans?

-Inflation after the war caused prices to soar. Conflict between states caused trade barriers. The federal government could not get a tax passed and could not get credit.

What were state governments doing that elites thought violated principles of republicanism?

-Middle class people came to power and the nation became more democratic. New state legislatures passed laws that helped debtors over creditors, printed their own money, and placed tariffs on other states. States also fought over western lands. To elites this was not disinterested republicanism, it was states being selfish.

The Constitution & Ratification:

Virginia Plan - Proposed a bicameral legislature with three branches of government where both houses of Congress were based on population. This was approved by big states. It becomes the blueprint for the Constitution.

New Jersey Plan - Counterproposal by small states to have a unicameral legislature where each state was even but give more power to the federal government.

Connecticut Compromise - The compromise that combined the two plans, essentially taking the VA Plan and making the upper house even for all states, which protected smaller states.

Bill of Rights - Anti-Federalists, who opposed the Constitution, thought that putting power in the hands of a strong central government was dangerous and demanded a federal Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties from tyranny.

Federalism - Idea ingrained into US institutions where there are different levels of government that share power. Local, state and federal governments each play a role in governing.

Checks & Balances - The Three branches of government can check the power of each branch. The executive has a veto, the legislative branch consents to nominees or can override the veto, and the judicial branch rules on the constitutionality of laws.

What argument did Federalists make for why the Constitution was necessary?

-They argued that the nation needed economic stability and cohesion that states could not offer alone. They also argued that presently there was too much chaos and instability, including unrest like Shay’s Rebellion. They also argued that the nation was defenseless in foreign policy.

What reasons did anti-Federalists give for not wanting the Constitution ratified?

-They were particularly concerned with the consolidation of power with a federal government that was not close to the people. (Whig Principles) They believed that governments that were too big and too strong could take away the rights of citizens.

How did the Founders address slavery in the Constitution?

-Generally they ignored it in the open, as the Constitution does not even say the word slave. They did stick provision like the ⅗ clause and fugitive slave clause to give credence to the institution. But the Founders knew that trying to address the issue would break up the union before it started so generally they tried to ignore it, or attack it on the periphery.

What steps did the Founders take to put slavery on the defensive in the future?

-The Founders did attack slavery where it was weak. They banned it in the NW Ordinance and gradually abolished it other northern states, which made it peculiar to the South. They also cut off the importation of slaves by banning the International slave trade in 1808 which raised the value of slaves. This led to slavery being forced even deeper into the south as more and more people escaped to freedom in the north. Lastly, the rhetoric of the Revolution put slavery on the defensive!

The Early Republic 1788-1800:

Federalist (political party) - New political party led by Hamilton what believed in a stronger central government and a more commercial economy.

Democratic-Republican - Jefferson’s party that believed in limited government and a stronger agrarian economy because yeoman farmers were the ultimate republicans.

Strict v. Loose Constructionism - Difference of opinion on how to interpret the Constitution. Jefferson believed in strict interpretation, meaning that the federal government could not do anything unless the Constitution gave it permission to do so. Hamilton believed in loose construction, meaning that if the constitution did not prevent something then it was allowed. Hamilton used things like the “Necessary and Proper” clause to justify the Bank of the US.

Jay’s Treaty - Treaty with Britain that does very little to fix issues with the Brits. It does give them preferred trade status and they do leave the forts in the north east, but the treaty is seen as pro-British and is wildly unpopular in the US, especially among Democratic-Republicans. It, along with the French Revolution, helped split the US up into a two party system.

Funding & Assumption - In an attempt to establish credit, Hamilton proposed that the federal government assume all state debts and pay off all US debt at the federal level. This would unify states behind the federal government and help the US establish credit.

1st Bank of U.S. - Part of Hamilton’s Plan, Jefferson argued it was unconstitutional and gave too much power to the federal government. Hamilton wanted a place to put revenue that he brought in to create capital for commercial investments.

XYZ Affair - US diplomats that went to Paris during the Adams Adm. and were snubbed by Talleyrand and the French Government. They came back to the US and the public was outraged calling for war.

Pinckney’s Treaty - Treaty with the Spanish, fearing an alliance with Britain after Jay’s Treaty, that opens up the Mississippi River and New Orleans, as well as ceding territory in the SW to the US

Quasi-War with France - Naval war fought with France during the Adams administration. Adams achieved building a more formidable navy during his presidency.

Alien & Sedition Acts - Federalist feared losing power so they passed the A&S Acts to make it a crime to publish harsh criticisms against the government and also expand the time out to become a citizen so that less immigrants would become D-R’s.

Kentucky Resolutions - Jefferson opposes the Alien & Sedition Acts as unconstitutional and lays out the Compact Theory of the Constitution which says that states can nullify laws passed by the federal government if the states deem them unconstitutional. (Not specifically written in the Constitution)

Election of 1800 - Jefferson wins a contentious election and ushers in the first real transition of power in US history from one party to another. Jefferson calls it the Revolution of 1800 because he brings his ideas of small government and agrarianism to the federal government.

What issues led to the formation of the first political parties in U.S. history?

-Issues about how to interpret the Constitution and whether the nation should be more commercial/industrial or remain agrarian. So the bank, funding & assumption and loose v. strict interpretation were contentious issues. The French Revolution solidifies the political party system as the Jeffersonians supported the French Revolution as an extension of the American Revolution and the Hamiltonians thought the French Revolution was dangerous and anarchic.

Jeffersonian Era:

Louisiana Purchase - US bought in 1803 from France. Jefferson saw this as a way to expand farmland for his agrarian principles. Critics pointed out that it may have been unconstitutional under a strict interpretation of the Constitution.

Embargo - 1807 response to British and to a lesser extent French harassment of US shipping, Jefferson declared that the US would stop selling goods to Europe. This was in an effort to avoid war but ends up hurting the US economy instead.

Marbury v. Madison - Supreme Court decision that establishes the precedent of judicial review, the idea that the Courts have a right to declare the constitutionality of laws.

Midnight Judges - Were Federalist judges like John Marshall, who were appointed by Adams in the last few weeks of his presidency in order to solidify Federalist ideas in the judicial branch.

How could the election of Jefferson be characterized as a revolution in 1800?

Jefferson believed in a small government and agrarian principles, which was different from Adams and Washington. Jefferson cut the military and slashed the US budget, but did keep paying Hamilton’s debt and did not get rid of the bank that he had opposed as unconstitutional.

Market Revolution:

Commercial farming - The transportation Revolution allowed farmers to ship products further and have access to more markets, which caused them to specialize in crops that could maximize their profits.

Technology - Farm technology helped farmers specialize in certain crops and to do more work in less time.

Transportation Revolution - Building of roads, canals & railroads increased the speed in which goods could travel, which dramatically lowered transportation costs as well as access to more goods.

Erie Canal - Built by the state of New York and finished in 1825. It opens up trade between New York City and the Great Lakes. The success of this canal started a flurry of canal building elsewhere.

American System - After the War of 1812 there was a surge of nationalism and nationalistic politicians. Henry Clay proposed to recharter the Bank of the US, raise tariff to protect new American industries, and invest in internal improvements (transportation)

Internal Improvements - Transportation build with government money, either federal or state. At the federal level, this was controversial because the constitution did not give the federal government the specific right to build infrastructure.

2nd Bank of the U.S. - The Bank was rechartered in 1816 by James Madison because it had become and integral part of the US economy. Even Madison, who had opposed the bank originally, signed the bill.

Lowell Factories - Some of America’s first factories, these were textile mills that employed mostly women, giving them dorms, libraries, and speakers in an effort to avoid the crippling poverty of industrial Europe. Competition eventually led to men, many of whom were Irish, taking the jobs.

How do improvements in transportation lead to the growth of a market economy?

Improvements in roads, canals, and eventually RRs dramatically decreased the cost and time associated with shipping goods which opened up new markets. This increased access to goods for consumers and caused many businesses and farmers to be more specialized.

What areas of the country were most likely to support “internal improvements”?

Developing areas tended to support new infrastructure, especially in the west. But many argued that federal development of infrastructure was unconstitutional so much of the “internal improvements” were built by state governments.

How does the Market Revolution foster more regional specialization?

Areas of the country, who could now bring in goods and services from other areas of the country, began to specialize in things that they were good at producing. The country moves increasingly away from a barter economy to a more commercial economy.

Era of Good Feeling:

Judicial Nationalism - The Federalists packed the courts at the end of Adams administration. The Courts will be sympathetic to giving power to the federal government at the expense of the states.

Monroe Doctrine - US foreign policy statement written by Sec. of State J.Q. Adams that claims the western hemisphere as America’s sphere of influence and discourages European powers from trying to recolonize areas that had gotten independence from Spain.

McCulloch v. Maryland - Sup. Court case that upholds the constitutionality of the Bank of the US. The case essentially held up the Hamiltonian principle of the federal government having implied powers, which legitimized the loose construction interpretation of the Constitution. Corrupt Bargain - 1824 election when Andrew Jackson won a plurality of both popular and electoral votes but not a majority. The election was then decided by the House of Reps where Henry Clay’s supporters gave their support to J.Q. Adams. Clay was then made Sec. of State and Jackson claimed the election was stolen. He then forms the Democrat Party to win the next election

Hartford Convention - Near the end of the War of 1812, New England Federalists met in Hartford to oppose the war, and possibly discussed secession. This was seen as unpatriotic and sped up the decline of the Federalist Party, which had gotten most of their support in New England.

War of 1812 - The Napoleonic Wars in Europe had continued harassment of US merchant ships. Impressment of US sailors was also an issue. The US sees limited success, but manages to stand up to the British and not lose.

Tecumseh - Shawnee warrior who attempted to put together a Native American confederacy to resist American incursions into land west of the Appalachian Mountains.

War Hawks - People who pushed hard for war. Many war hawks were from places in the South and west.

Explain the causes, course, and consequences of the War of 1812.

The war and Jefferson’s embargo made many Americans realize how vulnerable they were economically. Americans become more nationalistic and invest more heavily in infrastructure and economic commercialization.

How does the U.S. relationship with Britain begin to change after the War of 1812?

Although not allies, the two nations realized that a trade relationship on civil terms would benefit both countries so relations improved.

Was this era really one of “Good Feeling”? Explain

Era of good feeling comes about after the Federalist Party ceases to be a national party after the War of 1812. One party rule (Dem-Reps) meant that all of America’s disagreements over issues came from within the D-R Party. They disagreed on tariffs, internal improvements, banks, etc… This “Era” ends after the 1824 election with the eventual organization of the Democrats.

What role did the Supreme Court play in ensuring Federal power?

This is judicial nationalism. Cases enhanced the power of the federal government:

Gibbons v. Ogden: Ruled that the federal government was solely in charge of interstate commerce

Fletcher v. Peck: Ruled that a state law was unconstitutional

Cohens v. Virginia: Overturned a ruling by a state Court

Jacksonian Democracy:

Whig Party - Political party formed to oppose the Presidency of Andrew Jackson. Ideologically its platforms were similar to the old Federalists

2nd Political Party System - With the formation of the Whigs, a second political party system is formed. Instead of the D-Rs vs. the Federalists, you now have the Democrats v. Whigs

Nullification Crisis - After Congress passed another higher tariff in 1832, S. Carolina nullified the tariff saying that they could do so using the Compact Theory of the Constitution. Jackson threatens to use force to put down the rebellion but Clay pushes thru a compromise tariff. One of the first examples or sectional tensions.

Indian Removal Act - Signed by Jackson in 1830 it called for the removal of native people from the SE to west of the Mississippi River. Jackson and Democrats argued that this was to save Indians from annihilation while Whigs argued that it was unfair and immoral.

Trail of Tears - Forced march of the civilized tribes of the SE into what is now Oklahoma where many of them died.

Veto of Bank - Henry Clay tried to back Jackson into a corner by rechartering the Bank early in 1832 (Clay wanted to be President). Jackson vetoes the bank and then uses his veto message to berate banks and aristocratic rich people. He then takes the money out of the bank and gave it to state banks who would then loan it out to land speculators. With no central banking authority, the country begins to descend into free fall.

Specie Circular - Demanded that all land purchases be done with gold backed specie (money). This is going to significantly devalue paper money/bank notes, leading to inflationary pressures on the economy which helped contribute to the depression that followed.

Van Ruin - Jackson’s killing of the bank and Specie Circular order really do not take effect until Van Buren’s Presidency so he gets blamed for the depression that follows.

Spoils System - The idea, brought by Jackson to the White House, that political party loyalists would be rewarded with government jobs and positions.

Conventions - Political Parties began to nominate candidates in conventions, which was much more democratic than the party caucuses from the previous era..

Tariff of Abominations - High tariff opposed by the South. A majority of US exports came from the South so southerners tended to oppose tariffs because they exported lots of goods but imported most of their finished goods. This meant that they would pay more for consumer products but get reciprocal tariffs charged on them by foreign nations who imported their crops.

How had politics changed by the Age of Jackson?

Before Jackson people believed in Whig Principles and Republicanism. They still do, but society was becoming much more democratic. Property qualifications for voting were receding and politics became about pleasing the common man, who could vote. Deference to the elite was gone and conventions allowed more say in who nominees were. Politics became less about issues and more about “character”.

Explain the differences between a Whig and a Democrat during this period.

Whigs were similar to the old Federalists. They thought that the government should build roads, ensure sobriety, focus on economic progress and protestant values. Democrats were similar to the old Jeffersonians in that they wanted small government, they resented banks and commerce, and believed that internal improvements were unconstitutional.

Slavery:

The Liberator - Abolitionist newspaper published by Garrison that advocated for the immediate, uncompensated emancipation of slaves.

W.L. Garrison - radical abolitionist who believed that the Constitution was a covenant with death because is tolerated slavery.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion - Rebellion in Virginia in the summer of 1831 where 60+ whites were killed. This horrified the South and caused a harsh crackdown on slavery and rights that slaves had to read or move around freely.

Gang v. Task Labor - Task labor would allow slaves to work until a task was completed and then quit for the day. Gang labor was working from sun up to sundown. Slaves preferred task labor because it gave them more freedom.

American Anti-Slavery Society - Organization founded to try and eradicate slavery in the South. They advocated for working to abolish slavery thru the system, which made them less radical than someone like Garrison.

Liberty Party - Abolitionist political party formed in 1940 to work toward the abolition of slavery thru the political system. Abolition was never a majority position so they won very few elections.

Give examples of the ways in which slaves subtly resisted slavery.

Slaves would break tools, raid smokehouses and wine cellars, hurt animals or play dumb when confronted by whites. This was to assert some sort of independence and liberty over a situation that took away their humanity.

Manifest Destiny:

The Texas Question - Should Texas be annexed into the US despite potential problems with Mexico? And should the US be adding territory for the purpose of expanding slavery? (North’s perspective)

Oregon v. Texas - Democrats in 1844 demanded the annexation of Texas and Oregon. The US annexed Texas in 1845 but compromised with Britain over Oregon in 1846. Many northerners, especially Whigs, saw this as giving in to the Slave Power.

Mexican Cession - All the land in the American SW that was gained from Mexico after the MAM War. What to do with this land will be bitterly debated.

MAM War - US goes to war with Mexico over a border dispute. The war is popular in the US, especially in the South, as the US had its sights set on California. Many northern Whigs questioned whether this was an aggressive slave grab.

Texas Revolution - When Americans were invited into Texas by the Mexican government, they came and brought slaves with them. Americans and Tejanos living in Texas rebelled against Mexico as they believed the government was intruding on their liberties.

Compromise of 1850 - After the MAM War, people flocked to California (gold rush) and soon Cali applied for statehood as a free state. This set off divisive debates in Congress about how the west would look in regards to slavery. Cali came in as a free state, Utah & NM territories would be decided by Popular Sovereignty, and the South got a stricter fugitive slave law.

Fugitive Slave Act - A more strict law that required northerners to help southerners capture runaway slaves. Northerners resented the law and southerners were outraged at northern hostility.

Mormonism - Religion founded by Joseph Smith that dealt with rampant discrimination. Some saw them as a cult and other hated polygamy. Eventually they ended up in what is now Utah.

California Gold Rush - Caused the area to grown in 1848 and apply for statehood in 1849, setting off bitter debates in Congress over the fate of slavery in the west.

What united and divided Americans about Manifest Destiny?

Americans were generally united on expanding American values like democracy, Protestantism, capitalism and individualism. Slavery, and to a lesser extent, Native rights, divided the nation. What the west would look like in terms of the spread of slavery is at the heart of the conflict that would eventually become the Civil War.

In what ways might the MAM War be considered American Imperialism?

The U.S. was expanding west and Mexico had territory, esp. In California that the U.S. wanted. When Mexico refused to sell the SW to the US, we used a border dispute for an excuse to go to war with Mexico and eventually grabbed the Mexican Cession.

Reform Movements:

2nd Great Awakening - The catalyst for many of the reform movements of the 19th century. This Protestant movement emphasized perfection of self in preparation for Jesus’s return to earth. This sparked reform movements to better US society for the second coming of the Messiah.

Abolition - A small, but vocal reform movement that gains traction in the north in the Antebellum period. Never a majority of northerners, but they are important in the fight against slavery and also help expand other reforms movements like women’s rights.

Temperance - Americans drank a great deal during this period. Critics said that drinking caused crime, social problems and poor workers so they pushed to ban alcohol. Many immigrants like the Irish felt that temperance was anti-Irish because of their affinity for drink. Supporters thought this would make America a more moral place and help with the self perfection of the 2nd Great Awakening.

Women’s Rights - Many women who fought for abolition were denied equal treatment, even in the abolition movement, which led to them pushing for their own rights.

Education - Led by Horace Mann (first superintendent of MA public schools) in Massachusetts, there was a push, mostly in the north, for compulsory education. This was seen as a democratic reform in the north that would promote equality and a more highly productive workforce.

Asylum Movement - Movement led by Dorothea Dix to change the way the US dealt with mental illness.

Seneca Falls Declaration - 1848 womens rights convention where they wrote the Declaration of Sentiments. Modeled on the Declaration of Independence, it was a call for women’s equality and voting rights.

Cult of Domesticity - A new middle class idea about the expectations of women. As society became wealthier with the Market Revolution, a woman’s role became more domestic. As middle class men increasingly worked outside the home, women were put more in the domestic sphere. Women were expected to be domestic, submissive, pure & pious. They were expected to be a beacon of morality in a society becoming more competitive and fast paced.

Transcendentalism - is a philosophical movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the eastern United States. A core belief is in the inherent goodness of people and nature, and while society and its institutions have corrupted the purity of the individual, people are at their best when truly "self-reliant" and independent.

Why were people of this era interested in utopian communities and why did most of them fail?

The Market Revolution brought changes to society quickly and created a capitalistic society that was fast paced and competitive. Utopian societies were founded to preserve some element of the past or escape the new fast paced world. The Oneida Community, for example, was a perfectionist religious communal society founded by John Humphrey Noyes and his followers in 1848 near Oneida, New York. The community believed that Jesus had already returned in AD 70, making it possible for them to bring about Jesus's millennial kingdom themselves, and be free of sin and perfect in this world, not just in Heaven (a belief called perfectionism). The Oneida Community practiced communalism (in the sense of communal property and possessions) and complex marriage. Also, British industrialist Robert Owen founded a community in New Harmony, Indiana that was based on Bible Socialism, which was a way to avoid the pitfalls of industrial capitalism. Most of these places failed because American wages were too high to justify living in these communities for long periods of time, and internal struggles helped lead to their demise as well.

Sectional Tensions:

Missouri Compromise - 1820 Compromise that brought Missouri into the Union as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It then extended a line west (southern border of Missouri) that allowed slavery south of the line and prohibited it north of the line.

Tallmadge Amendment - In the debate over Missouri statehood, Tallmadge proposed that Missouri should have to gradually abolish slavery to get statehood and southerners were appalled. This episode is the first large scale struggle over the expansion of slavery which Jefferson called a “fire bell in the night”.

Gage Rule - 1936 House resolution that halted debate on slavery in Congress. Southerners began to fear the growing abolition movement in the North and tried to crush opposition but banning discussion of the topic in Congress.

Slave Power - The idea that grew in the north, that the South was controlled by a small aristocracy of slave owners who were hell bent on defending slavery at all cost, even if it meant crushing the rights of northerners in the process. Many things like the Gage Rule, annexation of Texas and the MAM War were seen as examples of slave grabs. Events in the 1850s with help this idea blossom in the north.

Compromise of 1850 - California applying for statehood in 1849 set off the worst sectional tension in history as southerners feared adding more free states would crush southern rights in Congress. Henry Clay brokered a “compromise” that was eventually pushed through by Stephen Douglas in separate bills that included Cali as a free state, the slave trade banned in D.C., and the south got a new fugitive slave law. Most people were unhappy with something, but grudgingly accepted the compromise to avoid conflict.

Wilmot Proviso - In the debate over the MAM War, many northerners, especially Whigs, were against the war as they saw it as a potential slave territory grab. The Wilmot Proviso was proposed by a northerner that said any territory gained by the war would not be allowed to have slavery. Southerners were outraged by this and it never passed, but is another example of section tension.

Fugitive Slave Law - Part of the compromise of 1850, it infuriated northerners because it essentially deputized them as part of the slave catching system.

In what ways were Americans able to compromise on the issue of slavery through the early 1850s?

Americans had compromised over slavery as far back as the writing of the Constitution with things like the 3/5th clause and the ability to abolish the slave trade after 20 years. 1820-1850 saw more compromises with things like Missouri, Nullification and the MAM War/Compromise of 1850. But the increasingly sectional nature of American politics made it less and less likely that compromise would be possible.

Critical Decade - 1850s:

Republican Party - Political party that began with abolitionist roots but expanded as a free-soil party (opposed expansion of slavery). This party was only in the north and southerners viewed them as radicals.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin - Book written by H.B. Stowe that puts slavery in human terms. It sparks increased outrage in the north over the dehumanizing aspects of slavery.

Kansas-Nebraska Act - Act that created the territories of Kansas & Nebraska where the slavery question would be decided by popular sovereignty. Northerners were outraged because both territories were above the MO Compromise Line where slavery would have been off limits. The Whig Party shatters over this and is eventually replaced by the sectional Republican Party.

Bleeding Kansas - Because of the K-N Act, both northern and southern people flocked to Kansas, creating violence like the Sacking of Lawrence or the Massacre by John Brown at Pottawatomie Creek.

Dred Scott Decision - 1857 Court decision that said blacks were not citizens of the United States and that the government could not outlaw slavery in any territory, north or south. This causes outrage in the North and affirmed the North’s view of the Slave Power.

Caning of Charles Sumner - Preston Brooks caned Charles Sumner in 1856 at the height of the Bleeding Kansas. To northerners, this showed that backward, brutal nature of southern society and confirmed the idea of the Slave Power. Brooks caning was seen as a threat to free speech and northern rights in general. This, along with Bleeding KS, helped lead to the emergence of the Republican Party as an anti-South, sectional party.

John Brown’s Raid - Brown was trying to start a slave uprising by storming the arsenal and arming local slaves. It failed, but Brown was seen in the south as a radical who represented the dangers of an increasingly hostile north.

Fire-eater - A southern nationalists who advocated secession from the Union.

Know-Nothing Party - Anti-immigrant political party of the 1840s-50s. Especially grew as a result of Irish and German Catholic immigrants of this period.

Compact Theory - Idea put forward by T. Jefferson that the union was a compact of states that had delegated certain powers to the federal government and reserved the rest for the states. If the federal government violated those powers, states could nullify laws or even secede from the Union. This is the ideological justification for the South leaving the Union in 1860.

New England Emigrant Aid Society - Group of wealthy New Englanders who paid immigrants to travel to Kansas and settle in order to ensure it would be a free state.

LeCompton Constitution - Border ruffians from Missouri (slave state) stuffed ballot boxes in Kansas, making the legislature pro-South. They drew up a Constitution that would not allow for the abolition of slavery in Kansas which was rejected by Congress. KS statehood would have to wait until the Civil War.

Pottawatomie Massacre - Murder of a southern sympathizer and his family by John Brown during Bleeding Kansas.

How did immigration change and cause ethnic tension in American society in the decades leading up the Civil War?

Immigration began to pick up from places like Ireland and Germany, especially in the 1840s. Many of the Germans were Catholic and almost all of the Irish were Catholic and destitute. This created a backlash against these immigrants as a threat to American society and values, leading to the rise of the American (Know-Nothing) Party.

Why was compromise no longer possible by 1860?

After the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, southerners felt threatened by the “radical” Republicans and they felt that they could no longer control the government in a way to protect slavery and their interests. Northerners had won the election and were not willing to compromise with the south over the expansion of slavery so war broke out.

Civil War:

Copperhead - Peace Democrats who were against the war.

War Democrat - Supported winning the war but were against emancipation of slaves and were critical of Lincoln suspending civil liberties, especially habeas corpus.

Gettysburg - High water mark of the Confederacy and largest battle of the war. After three days the South was defeated and forced to retreat back to Virginia. They would never go on the offensive again.

Emancipation Proclamation - Issued by Lincoln after Antietam, it went into effect on on 1/1/1863. It only applied to slaves in areas that were in rebellion against the union. It was a radical step in the emancipation of slaves, but only applied to seceding states because Lincoln did not want to upset the border states. It was also a war measure, designed to undermine the labor system that helped the South fight the war.

Confiscation Acts (2) - The First Confiscation Act (1861) said that any slave being used in the war effort could be confiscated by Union forces. The Second Confiscation Act (1862) said that anyone fighting for the Confederacy could have their property confiscated. These were important, yet gradual, steps toward emancipation.

Trent Affair - The Trent was a British ship that was boarded by Union sailors and had two southern diplomats arrested. This set off a tense diplomatic crisis between the North and Britain that was resolved when Lincoln released the prisoners.

King Cotton - Was the idea that the North would not be able to make war on the South because cotton was too important for the world economy, especially in Britain. Cutting off the supply of cotton would cause economic problems in Britain, forcing them to come to the aid of the South. Although the textile industry in Britain did suffer, many of the job losses were absorbed by other war related industries like arms and woolens.

Anaconda Plan - North’s plan to defeat the Confederacy by blockading its ports and then cutting it to pieces. As the war progressed, the blockade became more effective and the south suffered.

Vicksburg - Key city along the Mississippi River. When Grant took it the day after Gettysburg, the north had secured two huge victories, and controlled the Mississippi River, cutting the Confederacy in two.

Border States - Slave states that remained loyal to the union. Lincoln was very careful not to upset these states by moving too far, too fast on emancipation, as he feared they may also secede.

What advantages did both sides have at the outset of the war?

North had most of the industry, efficient food production, better schools, most of the nations transportation network, and a much larger population.

South had the advantage of shorter supply lines, a strong military tradition, fighting on its home turf (knew the roads etc…), did not really need to win the war, just avoid being conquered.

Why did Britain ultimately decide to stay out of the Civil War?

Britain had abolished slavery 3 decades before the Civil War and slavery was unpopular there so there was never great sympathy for the South. Although cotton was important to their economy, they made up for lost jobs in other war related industries. They also relied heavily on food exports in wheat and corn from the North that would be at risk if they recognized the South.

What was Lincoln’s record on civil liberties and habeus corpus?

Lincoln was willing to suspend habeas corpus, shut down newspapers and arrest draft dodgers, but mostly in places like Maryland and other border states.

What was the South fighting for at the beginning of the war and how does that change?

The South fought to keep slavery, uphold states rights, and their agrarian way of life. But as the war progressed, it was apparent that those three things were not conducive to winning. As a result, the South did a pretty good job of industrializing, the Confederate government attempted to consolidate power and they were even willing to arm slaves to win at the end.

Reconstruction:

13th Amendment - Pushed for by Lincoln and the more radical Republicans, it was adopted in 1865 and abolished slavery.

14th Amendment - Adopted in 1868 it gave equal protection of the laws, due process of law and birthright citizenship to all citizens.

15th Amendment - Adopted in 1870 this made it illegal to discriminate using race for voting. Southern states got around this amendment in various ways like poll taxes and literacy tests.

Scalawag - A southerner who defected to the Republican Party after the Civil War and was seen as a trader by whites in the South.

Civil Rights Act of 1866 - This was passed by Republicans in response to the Black Codes that were passed by southern states. Many parts of it became the basis for the 14th Amendment.

Carpetbagger - Were northerners who went South after the war to teach, work, rebuild etc… Many southerners resented them, but they made up some of the Republican Party.

Freedman’s Bureau - Established during the war to help newly freed slaves transition to freedom. It established schools and helped blacks acquire land and/or work. In some cases it worked well, in others, it did little to help freedmen. In many ways it depended on who was in charge of the local Bureau.

Sharecropping - Over time, many freedmen ended up back on farms as sharecroppers, where many times they were burdened with debt and falling crop prices.

Mississippi Plan - Plan developed by Mississippi Democrats, or redeemers, to take back the state from Republican control through violence.

Impeachment - Andrew Johnson succeeded Lincoln but was hated by many Republicans because he was really a southern Democrat. Johnson failed to enforce Reconstruction in the South and violated the Tenure of Office Act by firing Sec. of War Stanton. He was impeached, but eventually acquitted by one vote.

Redeemers - Southern Democrats who were willing to re-establish white rule in the South under any circumstances.

KKK - Basically became the military wing of the Democrat Party in the South. They intimidated and murdered blacks and white Republicans in the South.

Reconstruction Acts (4),

Radical Republicans - Republicans who wanted to remake the South by freeing slaves, confiscating Confederate land and redistributing it to the freedmen. They also pushed for civil and voting rights for blacks in the south as well. They helped but forward the Civil Rights Act of 1866 as well as pushing thru the Reconstruction Amendments.

Black Codes - State laws passed after the war that re-established white supremacy in the South by stripping blacks of most of their rights.

Panic of 1873 - Economic downturn that took the focus off of Reconstruction and helped lead to Reconstructions demise.

Lincoln’s 10% Plan - Proposed during the war, Lincoln wanted to heal the nation with leniency. He proposed that only 10% of southerners take loyalty oaths to re-establish governments.

Wade-Davis Bill - The Radical Republican response to Lincoln’s plan, this proposed 50% instead. Neither Lincoln’s plan or the Wade-Davis Bill ever became law.

Compromise of 1877 - Southerners had “redeemed” most states by 1876, but controversy over electors in three states led to a disputed election. After negotiations, southern Democrats agreed to allow the Republican to win the White House in exchange for Hayes pulling federal troops out of the South.

What factors led to the end of Reconstruction with southern “redeemers” in power?

Reconstruction was a long process and Americans got tired of the fight. There was a strong history in the U.S. of local control of governments and suspicion of Federal power that made some people sympathetic to the south’s views. The financial panic in 1873 made economic issues more important for many people and the corruption that was inherent in Reconstruction also led to many believing that money was being wasted. In the end, most northerners share the same view on race as southerners did and that racism led many to not care about the plight of freedmen. Reconstruction was a noble effort by Republicans to remake the South, but bitter resistance and an increasingly skeptical public made it difficult for it to succeed. But the foundation it set up by passing the 13,14,15 Amendments would eventually help lead the Civil Rights movement later.

Industrialization:

Bessemer Process - Process of pushing air thru steel during production that makes it stronger. This helped lead to increased production and use of steel, especially in RRs and buildings.

New Technology & Inventions - Industrialization was spurred on by new inventions and innovations that made production more efficient, or people’s lives easier.

Mass Production - Using interchangeable parts, many goods were mass produced, which increased output and efficiency, which in turn, lowered the price. It also meant that work became more monotonous as many workers did the same job all day.

Assembly Line - Sort of the ultimate form of mass production. It dramatically increases efficiency, but also lessens the need for skill in labor.

Sherman Anti-Trust Act - Passed in 1890 in an attempt to curb the power of corporations and monopolies. It was initially used to undermine labor unions, but was eventually used by T. Roosevelt and W. Taft to bust many of the monopolistic trusts that were formed in the period.

Standard Oil - J.D. Rockefeller’s oil trust. It made oil production super efficient and kerosene cheap, but drove out competition and was later broken up in 1911 using the Sherman Act.

Robber Barons - The term given to the captains of industry that controlled much of American manufacturing.

Interstate Commerce Act 1887 - The first Act ever passed by Congress that attempted to regulate private business. It set up the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate RRs. The Act forbid discrimination in long v. short haul pricing and required RR companies to publish their rates.

New South - Idea that emerged after the Civil War that the south needed to industrialize and look more like the north. The south did build textile mills and produced cigarettes, but mostly remained an agricultural society.

Horizontal & Vertical Integration - Types on business consolidation that allowed companies to expand their share of the market. Horizontal integration was eliminating competition by driving out or buying up competitors. Vertical integration was acquiring the means of production in order to become more efficient, which would then allow for more horizontal integration.

Social Darwinism - Based on evolution, this was applied to society saying that the best and most fit in the human species would naturally rise to the top. This was used to justify extravagant wealth, but also racism, as many argued that whites naturally had developed better and faster than other races.

Gospel of Wealth - Idea espoused by Andrew Carnegie, but adopted by most elites, this idea said that free market capitalism was necessary for the best and most talented to rise to the top, which would then move society forward. There was also a belief that people could make as much money as they wanted, but there was an obligation to give back to the community in charitable ways (libraries, hospitals, schools, concert halls, etc…). Also, part of this is that anybody can rise to the top based on your talent, remember, many of the so called “Robber Barons” were once working class.

What were some of the new forms of technology and how did they change the lives of everyday people?

Telephone for communication, Refrigeration for the movement of food and expansion of diets, sewing machines for the mass production of clothing, X-ray machines, airplanes & automobiles, just to name a few more...

What impact did industrialization have on living standards?

Industrialization brought about more wealth and a higher standard of living. America became the largest industrialized nation in the 1880s and also had the highest living standards. The average American was better paid, fed, and educated than anywhere else in the world.

What were both positives and negatives of industrialization in the U.S. in the late 19th Century?

Positives: more jobs, increased living standards, more technology, greater opportunities, booming cities, etc...

Negatives: pollution & environmental destruction, wealth stratification, child labor, working conditions, urban poverty, etc...

Why were tariffs a hotly debated issue in this period? Give examples of tariff policy between the Civil War and the Great Depression.

Republicans believed that higher tariffs protected US businesses from foreign competition and allowed the American economy to grow. Democrats tended to favor lower tariffs in order to reduce prices for consumers. Tariffs remain high through most of the period. The McKinley Tariff in 1890 was high, but the tariff fell briefly under Woodrow Wilson in 1913 with the Underwood Tariff.

Labor & Unions:

Great RR Strike - 1877 strike in the RR industry after wage cuts. It started in W. Virginia but spread to other NE states, but was eventually put down by state and federal troops.

Haymarket Riot - 1886 strike at a reaper factory in Chicago that led to violence. When police were called in to stem the violence, anarchists threw bombs into the police, killing 6. Americans feared that this represented radicalism and encouraged cities to strengthen police forces. It also led to the demise of the Knights of Labor as they were associated with the chaos and violence.

Homestead Strike - 1892 strike at a Carnegie steel plant outside Pittsburgh. Workers were locked out and replaced by scabs. When they resorted to violence, troops were brought in to quell the disturbance. The workers again lost because government sided with owners.

Pullman Strike - 1894 strike on the Pullman Railcar Company. Wages were cut but rents and prices in the company town remained the same so workers struck. Again, the federal government was called in to prevent the strike because they needed to deliver the mail.

Industrial Workers of the World - Radical, socialist union that gained little traction in America. Many Americans were uncomfortable with radical ideas and valued the free labor, small government ideology, which made many uncomfortable with a union like the Wobblies.

American Federation of Labor - A craft union that became popular after the Haymarket Riot. It was primarily for skilled workers and was non-partisan. They did not argue with the principles of capitalism, just that workers needed more of the pie. They fought primarily for better wages, working conditions, and better hours.

Knights of Labor - Industrial union that became popular after the Civil War. They tended to accept all workers despite skill level and race. They were not terribly comfortable with capitalism and promoted the idea of an 8 hour work day.

Samuel Gompers - Skilled cigar maker who helped found and was President of the AFL for decades. He brought about the idea of a strike fund to help workers on strike.

Collective Bargaining - The right of people to unionize and bargain collectively with their employer for standard conditions. This was not fully guaranteed by the federal government until the Wagner Act of 1935.

Iron Law of Wages - Idea that workers should get paid according to supply and demand. The fewer skills you have, the less you would make. Large immigrant populations helped drive down wages as work in mass production took less skill.

Socialism - Idea that workers, not owners, should control the means of production. Americans tendeded to dislike ideas like this, but was popular with some low skill workers.

Why did all of the strikes listed above fail?

Mostly due to the fact that there was no legal backing for unionization so in most cases the government came in to protect property rights of business owners.

Why was there a need to unionize during the industrial period?

Wages in some manufacturing industries tended to stay low because jobs were becoming less skilled, making them open to more people. There were also thousands of industrial workers hurt or killed every year in industrial accidents. That, and sometimes the work week could be 60-70 hours a week.

Immigration:

Old Immigrants - Most immigrants who came to the US before the 1880s were from northern and western Europe. They were primarily protestant and not destitute when they arrived. Despite their diversity, there was some racial and religious homogeneity.

New Immigrants - From eastern and southern Europe, they tended to be destitute or came to the US out of economic necessity. They were also more diverse, with many being Catholic, Jewish, Orthodox, etc… By the 1890s about half of all immigrants were “new” immigrants and after 1900, most were.

Chinese Exclusion Act - Only act in US history to target a specific group of people. Large scale Chinese immigration to the west led a lot of people to resent the Chinese as too different, leading to discrimination and violence against the Chinese. This pressure led to the passage of this act in 1882 which banned Chinese laborers from entering the US.

Nativism - New immigrants caused a backlash by native born protestant Americans. They felt like these people were changing American culture and values and threatening American democracy. This led to groups like the KKK reforming to resist, not just blacks, but all people who were not Anglo-Saxon protestant.

“How the Other Half Lives” - Photos printed into a book by Jacob Riis that showed Americans the urban poverty and working conditions that many Americans endured.

How did immigration change after about 1880?

Before 1880 most immigrants were “old”, gradually it shifts to new immigrants by 1900. (See above)

What role do economic downturns have on immigration?

Immigrants typically came to the US for economic reasons, so a downturn in the economy meant that immigration tended to slow down as jobs became scarce.

Progressivism:

DuBois v. Washington - Washington believed in gradualism, the idea that blacks should not push whites too far in terms of political and voting rights, but should instead ask for help in order to get an industrial education in order to gain some economic security and independence. DuBois wanted political rights immediately, believing that without voting and political power, they could never get change and justice. He advocated for empowering the “Talented 10th” of blacks in order to lead the black community out of poverty and injustice.

Jim Crow Laws - State laws that allowed for segregation in public places.

NAACP - DuBois and his colleagues founded the Niagara Movement, which organized the NAACP in 1909. This organization fights for rights of people of color, especially thru the legal system.

Women’s Rights - Primarily a movement to get suffrage (Susan B. Anthony), they did advocate for other things like temperance and birth control (Margaret Sanger). The 19th Amendment was passed in 1920, partially because women argued that they had helped the US win WW1 and deserved the right to vote.

Conservation - Movement to protect the environment from industrialization destruction. Conservationists believed in scientifically managing the land in order to use the resources responsibly.

Preservation - Led by people like John Muir and the Sierra Club, preservationists wanted to set aside land off limits to human development. National Parks are the most obvious example of this.

The Jungle - Book written by Upton Sinclair about immigrants in Chicago, but most people were appalled by the descriptions in the book of the meat packing industry and demanded change in how their food was processed and labeled.

Muckrakers - Journalists who exposed societal ills in order to foster reform and change. People like Ida Tarbell in her research on Standard Oil, or Jacob Riis, or Upton Sinclair. They would often times exaggerate the bad to get the attention of readers.

Hepburn Act - 1906 Law that gave the ICC the power to set maximum RR rates and open their books to scrutiny.

Elkins Act - 1903 Law that banned rebates for large shippers on RRs like petroleum and livestock. ICC could levy fines against companies that did not cooperate.

Meat Inspection Act - Direct result of the Jungle and the subsequent inspection of meat processing plants in the US that found bad conditions. It allowed the government to inspect and grade meat.

Pure Food & Drug Act - Created the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) which banned mislabeled food and drug products. It required all food to have active ingredients labeled for consumers.

Square Deal - Name given to Teddy Roosevelt’s domestic agenda the featured the 3Cs. Consumer Protection (Meat Ins. Act & PFDA), Conservation (Antiquities Act, Newlands Act, Nat’l Parks) & Controlling of Corporations. (Elkins & Hepburn Acts, Trust-busting using the Sherman Act)

Political Reforms (initiative, referendums, etc…) - Many believed that democracy needed reformed because of money in politics buying influence. Initiatives & referendums gave voters direct access to legislation, while recalls allowed them to throw out an elected official. Primaries allowed for voters to have a say in who their party nominates as well.

Temperance - Movement to ban alcoholic beverages. Many believed that drinking caused abuse, crime, and unproductive work habits. They finally got the 18th Amendment passed in 1920 when they made the argument that it was good for the war effort. It was unpatriotic to drink while there were grain shortages that needed to be utilized for the troops.

Progressive Era Amendments (16-19) - 16: Income tax was justified because of the gap between rich and poor. 17: Direct election of Senators was seen as more Democratic. 18: Banned alcohol to eradicate social problems. 19: Said states could not prohibit women from voting.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff - controversial tariff that helped tear the Republican Party apart in 1909. Progressives within the party wanted a lower tariff but conservatives did not so they raised the tariff in 1909 and Taft signed the bill. This angered Progressives like TR, who decided to break from the Republican Party and run as a Progressive Party (Bull Moose) member instead.

Tammany Hall & Boss Tweed - Most cities had political machines and Tammany Hall in NY City was the most famous. Democrats in NY controlled everything and siphoned money from city coffers using bribery, extortion, kickbacks, etc… Boss Tweed basically ran Tammany Hall and became a millionaire as a public servant.

Hull House - Owned and operated by Jane Addams, it was a place where immigrants could go to try and adjust to life in America. Settlement houses popped up all over the country as a way of helping immigrants assimilate.

Social Gospel - was a social movement within Protestantism that applied Christianity to social problems and advocated government action to solve those problems.

Define Progressivism. How successful were Progressives of this era at the federal level?

Progressivism was essentially a reform movement that tried to use government to alleviate the problems brought about by industrialization.

Were Progressives exclusionary or inclusionary? Explain.

Progressivism was exclusionary because it is not all one reform. There are many, sometimes unrelated movements, that fall under the umbrella of Progressivism. Conservation, civil rights, workers rights, or the environment, are just a few of the examples that show the diversity of the Progressive movement.

Populism:

Pendleton Act - 1883 Civil Service reform act that banned the Spoils System and required people looking for government jobs to pass a test to prove they were qualified. The unintended consequence was that politicians need a new source of money to fund their campaigns, so they looked to private and corporate money instead.

Ocala Platform - 1890: Southern farmers alliance demanded direct election of Senators, government control of currency (instead of central banks) and lower tariffs (to name a few). These later went into the Omaha Platform

Omaha Platform - Much of what was in the Ocala Platform, but also wanted the nationalization or RRs & communication, an income tax, and adoption of the Silver standard. This was the formal beginning of the People’s (Populist) Party.

William Jennings Bryan - 3 time Presidential candidate for the Democrats (lost all 3!), with his Cross of Gold speech in 1896 he secured his party’s nomination and absorbed many of the Populist party ideas into the Democratic Party, making the functioning Populist Party short lived, but also successful in pushing agrarian reform issues.

McKinley Tariff - High tariff passed by Republicans in 1890 that did not apply to many farm good, therefore making it more expensive to buy manufactured goods but forcing farmers to compete globally, depressing crop prices.

Mechanized Farming - This is the key to increased agricultural productivity. Producing more food with less people allows for industrialization and urbanization.

Farmers Alliance - The precursor to the Populist movement, it was farmers from different areas of the country banding together. They supported government regulation of transportation, inflation of the currency (later silver), and an income tax.

Silver Standard - New machinery in farming was expensive and many farmers had to go into debt in order to afford the machines that would make them competitive. They supported switching the US monetary system over to a silver standard instead of a gold standard in order to inflate the currency and help pay off their debts.

Homestead Act - 1862 Act that opened up the west to free soilers. It gave 160 acres of land in the west to homesteaders for free if they improved the land.

Morrill Act - Established land grant universities around the country to foster higher education.

The Grange - One of the oldest organizations in the farmers alliance, they promoted cooperatives, which are farmers uniting to demand better RR rates and storage fees. They successfully lobbied state legislatures to regulate RR rates as well.

Frederick Jackson Turner (historian) - Turner wrote the Frontier Thesis as Americans had settled the entire continent by the end of the 19th Century. He argued that the frontier was the defining characteristic of American society. It made us who we are in terms of embracing individualism, freedom & independence, but also violence.

Dawes Severalty Act - 1887 law meant to help assimilate Indians into American society by making them land owning farmers. Reservations were broken up into individual parcels of land and given to a head of household. This was deemed a failure because the lands was typically bad, many Indians had no experience farming, and it led to the tribal identity of many Indian people breaking down.

The People’s Party (Populists) - When farmers alliances and Granges came together on a national level to form their own political party. See Ocala & Omaha Platforms for their views.

What problems did rural people in the U.S. face at the end of the 19th Century?

Many farmers faced debt issue because of the mechanization of farming (equipment was expensive). America also had high tariffs to protect industrial goods, which made industrial products more expensive. But those tariffs did not always protect agricultural products, forcing farmers to compete on a global scale, which depressed farm prices. Add on land taxes, high RR rates, and storage fees, many farmers felt like they were stuck in debt.

What solutions did they come up with for their problems?

The solution was to organize collectively, or form cooperatives. This would give farmers more power in the market by coming together to negotiate better RR rates and storage fees together. They also lobbied for a switch over to the silver standard in order to inflate the currency in order to help them pay off their debts faster. (Also, see Ocala & Omaha Platforms above)

What role did technology play in the changing nature of American farms?

New threshers, harrows, seed drills and combines made farming much more efficient and productive. It also meant that many farmers specialized in one crop because otherwise it was hard to compete. But this was also risky because if prices for that crop fell a farmer was at the mercy of the market.

Imperialism:

Monroe Doctrine - Issued in 1823, this basically said that the western hemisphere was America’s sphere of influence and that European powers should not try to recolonize places here after the breakup of the Spanish Empire.

SPAM War - After the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor, and under pressure from the Yellow Press, McKinley finally asked for a declaration of war against Spain. The US won in 6 months in what was called “A Splendid Little War”. The SPAM War made America an empire as we gained Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico & the Philippines.

Filipino Insurrection - The Filipinos cooperated with the US during the SPAM War, as they wanted their independence from Spain. But afterward turned on the US when we decided to stay. In a brutal 3 year war, the US put down the Filipino uprising.

Roosevelt Corollary - Issued in 1904 after the Venezuelan Crisis, TR said that not only is the western hemisphere our sphere of influence, but we would intervene when necessary to protect American interests, essentially making the US the police force of the hemisphere.

Hawaii - The monarchy was overthrown by US business interests but the US government denied annexation until the SPAM War when the strategic location of Hawaii became important for fighting the Spanish in the Philippines.

“White Man’s Burden” - Poem by Rudyard Kipling that said white nations (especially English & Christian) had an obligation to spread their superior way of life around the world to help civilize other non-white nations. This was justification for imperialism, and has Social Darwinistic principles.

Teller Amendment - Was added to the declaration of war with Spain that said the US had no territorial aspirations in Cuba and promised to see that Cuba was given independence.

Platt Amendment - When the US did leave Cuba they put the Platt Amendment in their constitution which gave the US the right to intervene in Cuban affairs when we felt US interests were threatened.

Panama Canal - An American engineering marvel, it connected the Pacific & Atlantic oceans. This was strategically important for the US in terms of shipping goods and naval power as we could quickly move from ocean to ocean. We secured rights to build the canal by supporting Panama rebelling against Colombia.

Venezuelan Crisis - 1902-03 crisis where Germany (Britain & Italy too) demanded repayment of debts from Venezuela and sent their navy to blockade Venezuela. The US later intervened and pressured Germany into settling the matter thru arbitration. This incident prompted Roosevelt to issue his Corollary.

Boxer Rebellion - Nationalist rebellion in China against imperialist nations. The US sends in a small force to help the Euros put down the rebellion.

Anti-Imperialist League - Many Americans opposed imperialism, especially the US war in the Philippines so they formed the A-I League. Many opposed imperialism because it was hypocritical to our values of self government, but other opposed it for racist reasons, because they did not want the US to associate with lesser people and cultures.

Open Door Policy - US circulated notes to the powers controlling China in hopes that they would open up their spheres of influence to free trade. This never happens like we hoped, but the US is able to open up some markets in China.

Gentlemen’s Agreement - Asian immigration to the US was always controversial and the San Francisco School Board implemented segregation against Japanese students. Japan was angered and threatened the US. Roosevelt worked out the GA which reintegrated schools and promised to treat the Japanese as equals, in exchange for Japan stopping additional laborers from coming to the U.S.

Dollar Diplomacy - Taft’s policy of encouraging US business investments in Latin America in order to bring about prosperity and better relations. Many times this created resentment instead.

Yellow Journalism - American newspapers that sensationalized stories in competition for readers. They helped push the US into war with Spain in 1898.

Alfred Mahan - Wrote a book “Influence of Sea Power Upon History” where he claimed that thru history the great powers always had large navies and that they were necessary to be a world power. This helped convince the US government to invest in a larger navy.

Philippine Autonomy Act - Set up a representative government for the Philippines and paved the way for formal independence later.

How is U.S. foreign policy different in the western hemisphere than other parts of the world?

The US saw the western hemisphere as its sphere of influence and was willing to get involved in affairs using the Monroe Doctrine and later the Roosevelt Corollary. With the exception of the Philippines, the US was not typically willing to risk war outside of the western hemisphere. The Open Door policy is a good example here of us trying to get access to Chinese markets but not going to war to open the doors.

What were the arguments, for and against, American overseas expansion?

Many Americans believed that the US should be a great world power and that our economic might justified our expansion. Someone like T. Roosevelt gloried in imperialism because he thought the US should be the world’s preeminent power. Others questioned whether imperialism fit with the US belief in self government and democracy, or the consent of the governed. Some, like Samuel Gompers feared unskilled labor would pour into America from colonies and hurt labor and wages. Some did not want America to be associated with people who they saw as inferior using the ideas of Social Darwinism.

Wilson & World War 1:

Keating-Owens Act - Federal law that banned child labor by restricting the movement of goods over state lines using child labor. The Supreme Court struck it down in Hammer v. Dagenhart..

Clayton Anti-Trust Act - Law to add power to the earlier Sherman antitrust act, this law banned interlocking directorates and exempted labor unions who had been targeted using the Sherman Act.

Federal Reserve - Banking reform signed by Wilson that creates a central bank that can raise and lower interest rates as well as regulate the banking sector.

Underwood Tariff - Progressive tariff signed by Wilson that finally lowered the tariff significantly.

Federal Trade Commission - Regulatory agency that enforces antitrust laws and deals with consumer protection.

Zimmerman Note - Telegram intercepted by Britain and shared with the US. Germany asked Mexico to invade the US in case of war between the US and Germany. This in theory would keep America from sending troops to Europe. Mexico would get back the Mexican Cession if they won. Americans were outraged and it is one of the reasons the US eventually went to war with Germany.

Bull Moose Party - TR started his own political party when he was denied the Republican nomination in 1912. This is essentially the Progressive Party, which consisted mostly of the progressive wing of the Republican Party. They managed to divide the Republican vote and allow Wilson to win the election.

Mexican Revolution - Unrest in Mexico caused almost 1 million Mexicans refugees to come to the US.

Creel Committee - Also called the Committee of Public Information. This agency produced propaganda to promote the war effort in WW1.

War Industries Board - Government committee of people who coordinated and planned production of military goods in WW1, consolidating more power to the federal government.

National War Labor Board - Government committee that tried to organize labor to fit the needs of war mobilization in WW1. Many workers chose to go on strike during the war anyway.

14 Points - Wilson’s 14Points were the basis for the cease fire in WW1. They called for self-determination (democracy), free trade, open seas, no more secret alliances, and de-colonization. Most Euro powers rejected these ideas but they set an important precedent.

Treaty of Versailles - Treaty that ended WW1 officially and punished Germany with war guilt and reparations. The US was wary about joining the League of Nations so they refused to sign the treaty.

Espionage & Sedition Acts - Acts passed during the war to curtail dissent. It became illegal to engage in acts that undermined the draft or the war effort in any way. These were upheld in Schenck v. US.

Palmer Raids - Series of anti-communist, anti-radical raids on suspected radical leftists by the US Attorney General Mitchell Palmer. Bombings and labor unrest had made many Americans nervous about letting more radical people into the U.S. Helps fuel the Red Scare.

What causes the Republican Party to split in 1912? How does this help Wilson?

The party split over the Payne-Aldrich tariff, which progressives claimed was too high and made consumer goods too expensive. Taft had promised a lower tariff but signed the P-A tariff which kept rates high. They also disagreed over the conservation movement, specifically the Pinchot-Ballenger Affair.

Why did the U.S. ultimately fail to ratify the Treaty of Versailles?

Republicans did not want the US to be dragged into a war without their own consent, so they were skeptical of the League of Nations. When Wilson was not willing to accept reservations protecting US interest, Most Republicans opposed ratifying the treaty in order to protect American sovereignty.

In what ways did the government mobilize the nation to help win WW1?

From coordinating and planning production to drafting an army, the government mobilized society to fight a total war. The NWLB tried to mobilize labor and the Creel committee produced propaganda. Women worked in factories and blacks moved north in the Great Migration to take available manufacturing jobs.

Roaring 20s: Red Scare,

KKK - Group that reemerged as a backlash to immigration and the Great Migration, it became widely popular in the 1920s and pushed for the federal government to outlaw

Prohibition - Alcohol was an illegal substance in the 1920s because drys insisted it would help curb social dysfunction. This led to increases in organized crime as people like Al Capone battled for the illegal liquor business.

Sacco & Vanzetti - Italian immigrants who were petty criminals and radicals. They were accused of robbing and murdering the driver of an armored car. Even though the evidence was sketchy at best, they were convicted anyway. This shows the influence the Red Scare had in America in the 1920s

Wets vs. Drys - Supporters of Prohibition (drys) tended to come from places that were more rural, protestant, and Anglo-Saxon. Wets tended to be from more liberal and urban places that saw banning alcohol as a threat to freedom and liberty, especially of immigrants.

Flappers & Vamps - Independent women who might smoke, drink or be open with their sexuality. They tended to be young, urban, and employed. They symbolized the more care free lifestyle of the 1920s and new freedom of women represented by the 19th Amendment.

Laissez-Faire Economics - After decades of progressive reform, the traditional wing of the Republican Party espoused older ideas about small government and hands off economics. This became the predominant theme in the 1920s as taxes were low, business boomed, regulations were limited, and Americans lived a more carefree lifestyle, buying consumer goods.

Speakeasies - Secret bars that operated during prohibition. They drove demand for illegal liquor and were also examples of a more carefree attitude in the 1920s.

Radio - Key to spreading a national American culture over mass communication. It also revolutionized advertising as Americans in the 1920s spent lots of money on consumer goods.

Stock Market Crash - The Stock Market crashed in 1929 because it was apparent that stocks were overvalued. The economy had begun to slow down because a lot of the prosperity of the 20s was based on credit. When the federal reserved raised interest rates borrowing became more expensive and demand for goods fell. Another theory is that the overproduction of goods had outpaced American’s ability to buy them and that the gap between the rich and poor had gotten so bad that consumer spending declined.

Scopes Monkey Trial - A teacher in Tennessee was charged with teaching evolution. This was a crime in TN. The trial was symbolic of a nation grappling with modernization and tradition. Were people still going to rationalize the world through religion or the reasoning of science?

Charles Lindbergh - First man to successfully fly over the Atlantic solo. He symbolized the wholesome traditional American values of hard work, perseverance, and good morals (in reality he lacked these…) and how Americans could conquer anything with their technology.

Credit - The ability to buy now, pay later. Installment buying became popular in the 20s and it allowed many Americans to buy cars and more expensive consumer appliances.

Harlem Renaissance - Cultural awakening in Harlem that emphasized the “New Negro”. African-Americans celebrated black culture and history by writing journals, newspapers, music and art. They emphasized black contributions to American life and Harlem became a popular place in the 1920s.

Marcus Garvey - Black nationalist from Jamaica that advocated Pan-Africanism in the 1920s and participated in the Back to Africa movement. He printed his own newspaper and bought steam ships to help blacks emigrate to Africa.

Explain how the Roaring 20s can be seen as a clash between old and new ideas?

Culture wars in America ran rampant in the 1920s as Americans wrestled with modernization. The Scopes trial represented a struggle between religion and science, Sacco & Vanzetti as well as the rise in the KKK & the National Origins Act all represented Anglo-Saxon backlash to a more diverse America due to immigration. Even alcohol was banned by more rural and religious people who hoped to purify society, and was opposed by those who believed they could make their own decisions and that alcohol was an attack on immigrant culture. Also, change was centered in cities where a lot of the progressive ideas flourished, and many of the resentment for those ideas came from rural areas. For example, most flappers were urban, and many rural women thought they were immoral women.

Which groups did not share in the prosperity of the 1920s?

Crop prices fell after Europe’s agriculture recovered from WW1, and the Dust Bowl set in after 1925, causing farmers to miss out. African-Americas also missed out because of racism limiting their ability live and work where they pleased.

In what ways did science & technology influence American life and nationalize culture in America?

Americans embraced new technology in the 1920s. The radio allowed people to hear the same shows and advertisements. Airplanes and automobiles were more widespread revolutionizing transportation. This caused a boom in road building and infrastructure. Other consumer goods like refrigerators and vacuum cleaners and clothes washers were used more during this period, which gave people more leisure time. Also, most Americans had electricity in their homes by the end of the 1920s, which allowed for the vast expansion of electrical products.

Great Depression:

Associational Philosophy (Hoover) - Was a belief in cooperation between government and the private sector. For example, in the aftermath of the stock market crash of 1929 Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21. Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance

Smoot-Hawley Tariff - 1930 tariff on thousands of goods imported into the United States. One of the causes of the Depression was a surplus of goods, like automobiles, on the market. So when the US raised tariffs, many countries countered with their own tariffs on US products. And since we were producing almost half the worlds consumer goods, this cuts off trade at a time where we had excess product that we needed to sell. This undoubtedly deepened the depression and misery of the time.

New Deal - FDR’s domestic agenda, he hoped to bring progressive era ideas to the federal government, where he would use the power of the federal government to help Americans through the economic crisis.

TVA - Tennessee Valley Authority, this program built hydroelectric dams on the Tennessee River to provide power for a poverty stricken area in the rural south.

AAA - Agricultural Adjustment Act, paid farmers not to farm in order to stabilize farm prices. The first AAA was ruled unconstitutional so the bill was re-written and was later upheld as legal.

WPA - Works Progress Administration, paid unemployed workers to build things like school, post offices, and streets, or other forms of manual labor. It also provided funding to the arts, humanities & music, paying some of people like John Steinbeck to write books or Jackson Pollack to create art.

CCC - Relief program designed for young people, it paid them $30 a month to do manual labor in parks and other outdoor spaces. $25 was sent home so they would not be tempted to spend it on immoral things.

NRA - National Industrial Recovery Act, was meant to end “destructive competition” by having government officials and business leaders write codes (minimum wages, max hours, price ceilings, etc…)for American businesses. This was meant to help solve the problem of “overproduction”, but probably made things worse. This was declared unconstitutional in the Schecter Case (see below)

PWA - New Deal program designed to give government contracts to private companies to build infrastructure projects. Most of the workers were skilled laborers, which is different from programs like the CCC & WPA.

Social Security - Large social safety net program that provided old age pensions, unemployment insurance, workers compensation and many other things. Was designed to provide a minimum standard of living.

Wagner Act - 1935 law that gave unions the legal right to collective bargaining. As well as legal protections against blackmailing of union voters. This is a major step empowering unions to getting more rights.

Fair Labor Standards Act - Bill passed in 1938 that established the first minimum wage, banned child labor, and required overtime pay for anything over 40 hours.

Court Packing - After the AAA & NRA are declared unconstitutional, FDR responds by trying to pack the Court by adding more justices. This seems to many, including fellow Democrats, that it is a threat to checks and balances so it is never passed.

Bank Holiday - FDR upon taking office ordered all banks to close temporarily to stop bank runs, as the government trucked in new money to meet the demand. Although banks will still collapse, it dramatically slows down the closing of banks.

American Liberty League - Group of conservatives, many of whom were business owners, who opposed FDR’s New Deal as a dangerous threat to US democracy because of “creeping socialism”

Huey Long - Former Senator and Governor of Louisiana, he was a populist. Started “Share Our Wealth” Clubs and became a big critic of FDR and the New Deal for not taking America far enough to the left. He may have been able to challenge FDR for the Presidency but was killed by an assassin before he could.

Father Charles Coughlin - Anti-semitic radio preacher who was also a critic of the New Deal for not doing enough to curb corporate power. He was later pulled off the air for his anti-semitism.

Bonus Army - US army veterans from WW1 were promised a cash bonus in 1945 but were desperate during the Depression so they marched on Washington in 1932 to demand their payment now. After days of asking, Hoover finally called out the army and cleared the camps. This was seen as another example of how inept Hoover was and how America itself was desperate for action.

Francis Townsend - California doctor who lobbied hard to get the Social Security Act passed to help elderly people, especially with old age pensions.

Congress of Industrial Organizations - After the passage of the Wagner Act, unions felt empowered to strike, because they had federal protections now. The 1930s was a time of terrible strife between labor and management with thousands of workers out on strike. Auto workers in Flint, led by John Lewis, went on a sit-down strike in the mid-1930s and won union recognition. They then formed the CIO out of the AFL, which was a new industrial union for common laborers, not just skilled workers like the old AFL.

John Lewis - Leader of the sit-down strikes and founder of the CIO (see above)

Compare and Contrast how FDR and Hoover handled the economic collapse.

Hoover came from the laissez-faire school of economics for the most part and worried that too much government action would threaten liberty and hurt the work ethic of individuals. His associational philosophy (see above) did not reject all government intervention though. But FDR revolutionized the role of government in the 1930s with his New Deal. Progressivism, which had brought forth the idea that the government should take a more active role in society to help solve problems, was brought to the federal government by FDR. The New Deal brought about the idea that it was the government's responsibility to take care of people and provide for them when they were in need.

Was the New Deal successful in ending the depression?

In short, no. Liberals and Keynesian economists believed that FDR did not do enough to get us out of the depression. Keynesian economists believed in the need for more government spending to boost production. Others believed that FDR had gone too far to the left and was making the US more socialist. Either way, the unemployment rate remained in the high teens until WW2. So the government spent lots of money on alphabet soup programs but still had high unemployment until war spending lowered the unemployment rate.

Foreign Policy Between the Wars:

Five Powers Treaty (Agreed to at the Washington Naval Conference) - Agreement between the US, Britain, Japan, France & Italy to limit the number of battleship that each country could produce. This was in an effort to avoid another naval arms race, one of the causes of WW1. It was also an attempt by the US to limit conflicts so not to get sucked into another war.

Dawes Plan - As the German economy collapsed in the 1920s, partially due to the reparations required by the Treaty of Versailles, the US put this plan together to try and stabilize the finances of the nations involved. The US would loan money to Germany at low interest rates, who could then pay their reparations to Britain & France. They could then pay back their loans they had taken from US banks during the war.

Kellogg-Briand Pact - Agreement between the US and other European powers that said war was no longer a viable policy unless in cases of self defense. This was another way that the US tried to stay out of international conflict.

Nye Committee - Congressional committee that investigated US entry into WW1 and concluded that banks and arms manufacturers were partially to blame because they pressed the US to go to war so they could make money off of loans or arms shipments.

Good Neighbor Policy - With turmoil brewing in Europe, FDR adopts the Good Neighbor Policy in Latin America which essentially committed the US to non-intervention in Latin American affairs.

Neutrality Acts - Passed yearly in the second half of 1930s, they attempted to keep America out of foreign conflict by adopting the practice of Cash & Carry. This said we would only sell non-military goods to warring nations if they paid cash and picked them up. (see below)

Lend-Lease Act - This makes the US the “Arsenal of Democracy” by committing us to supporting allies around the world with money and material (not men).

1940 Draft - Unlike WW1, FDR convinced Congress to implement a draft before we entered the war so that we would be more prepared.

What impact did the Nye Committee’s findings have on U.S. foreign policy in the late 1930s?

Using the Nye Committee for guidance, Congress adopted cash and carry policies in the Neutrality Acts. This said we would only sell non-military goods to warring nations in exchange for cash and those nations coming to get them. This would eliminate all the reasons the US was dragged into WW1 (banks, arms manufacturers, ships sinking). This policy later changed in 1939 to include war material. In reality banks and arms dealers had little to do with the US joining WW1 but the committee findings shaped their decision making.

What is America’s role in the world between the World Wars?

The US made an effort to stay isolated as much as possible and to stay out of foreign conflicts. Starting with the US rejecting the League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles, the US was not interested in direct intervention in the world. But the US was very much an active neutral with things like the Washington Conference, the Kellogg-Briand Pact, and Dawes Plan, the US attempted to forge world affairs as to eliminate conflict and keep the US out of foreign wars. When Europe fell apart in the 1930s, Congress adopted the Neutrality Acts and finally Lend-Lease, before Pearl Harbor finally dragged us in conflict in 1941.

Supreme Court Cases of Note:

Schenck v. U.S. - WW1 era case that upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act. It said that free speech did not give people the right to undermine government interests or to encourage people to do things that broke the law (anti-draft literature). The Court compared this to yelling fire in a crowded theatre, the free speech did not protect this type of speech.

Muller v. Oregon - 1908: The Court upheld an Oregon Law that limited the number of hours that women could work. Some people, including some women, thought this was a victory for women as they needed protection. Other women said that this treated them differently than men and that they were not given the same contractual rights of bargaining as men got.

Slaughterhouse Cases - was a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that held that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution only protects the legal rights that are associated with federal U.S. citizenship, not those that pertain to state citizenship.

Holden v. Hardy - 1898: The Court upheld a mining law in Utah that limited the number or hours worked in mining. The Court ruled that since the law was based on facts and a specific need, it was legal under the police powers allowed by the Constitution. Other more broad work laws had been struck down because of their vague general nature.

Lochner v. New York - 1905: Overturned a NY law that limited the number of hours in a week worked by bakers. The Court ruled that this violated the right to free contract. (right of people to work for how long they want). This was seen as a defeat for Progressivism because the law had been passed to stop the spread of diseases associated with shaky working conditions.

Schecter v. U.S. - 1935: The “Sick Chicken” case, ruled the convoluted provisions of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NRA) to be unconstitutional. The NRA allowed businesses and government bureaucrats to write codes and provisions of key industries, which the Court ruled was a violation of the separation of powers inherent in the Constitution. This case, along with the AAA, were key elements in the New Deal that were held invalid by the Court, causing FDR to resort to his Court packing scheme.

Plessy v. Ferguson - 1896: The Court ruled that a Louisiana Law that allowed for segregated train cars was Constitutional. Many southern states after Reconstruction had already begun to pass “Jim Crow” laws. Now that the Court upheld their constitutionality, these segregation laws spread quickly in the south, allowing for legal separation of the races in almost all public spaces. This was justified under the idea that separate facilities were not inherently unequal, which of course they almost always were.

World War II:

Rationing - Because of shortage due to the war, many goods were rationed. Gasoline, meat, cheese, sugar, etc...

Recycling - The government was in desperate need of supplies for the war and asked Americans to recycle things like paper, rubber, metals & cooking grease (for bombs).

War Bonds - To fund the war, the government raised taxes as well as implemented an excess profits tax. They also borrowed money by selling war bonds which funded about half the cost of the war through debt. Hollywood actors pitched war bonds in advertisements and many Americans of all classes bought them.

Total War - WW2 was a total war, or a war where both sides put all of their efforts and resources into winning. The US mobilized massive resources on the home front to win, and resorted to strategic bombing of enemy military and civilian sites to ensure victory.

Manhattan Project - Highly secretive military project that developed and tested the nuclear bomb.

Japanese Internment - Because of the hysteria caused by the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Americans feared that Americans of Japanese descent would undermine the war effort or even spy for Japan. FDR, through executive order, removed most Japanese from the west coast into internment camps. Many lost their homes and businesses in a violation of civil rights.

Double V campaign - Black Americans rallied around the Double V campaign, or the fight against fascism abroad and racism at home.

Fair Employment Practices Committee - Black leaders pressured FDR to desegregate the war production industries as America ramped up military production in 1940. The result was an executive order that created the FEPC, which said that US companies that received war contracts were not allowed to segregate their workforce. This was an important step toward civil rights, which would kick into high gear after the war. There was also another “Great Migration” during the war of blacks leaving the South to go north, and west also, to work in war jobs.

Rosie the Riveter - Government propaganda that showed women doing “mens” work. Because of the labor shortage created by the war, industry needed women to work in factories. Although a majority of war workers were still men, women played a key role in producing the goods needed to win the war.

War Production Board - These people were in charge of coordinating and planning war production, as well as allocating the resources to industry in order to produce the war materials needed for victory. This was similar to the War Industries Board from WW1 and was a form of centralized planning that was not typical for the US economy.

War Labor Board - Their job was to manage labor by encouraging workers to take certain jobs and to move where jobs were located if necessary. Their biggest job though was to mediate labor disputes and avoid strikes. Striking workers cannot make war goods!

Office of Price Administration - They were in charge of the rationing of goods and price controls during the war. For some goods, they set maximum prices to prevent massive price inflation.

Second Front - The Soviets suffered tremendously in WW2 and Stalin hoped to alleviate some of that pressure with the allies opening of a second front in the west, which would force the Germans to fight a two front war. Stalin perceived that we slow played the second front in order to weaken the Soviet Union for the post-war period.

Island Hopping - US strategy in the Pacific War to take strategic islands in order to get closer to Japan for an invasion to force unconditional surrender.

Atlantic Charter - Meeting pre-Pearl Harbor between Churchill and Roosevelt. They discussed war goals as well as what the post-war world should look like. They agreed that destroying the Nazis and creating a new international organization for peace keeping after the war (UN) were important. They also agreed that they wanted a post-war world based on self-determination, similar to the vision of Woodrow Wilson.

United Nations - Replacement for the League of Nations. Along with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, these organizations were meant to help international cooperation and foster prosperity. The new UN would put a great deal of power in the Security Council where the US and USSR would have veto power (so did Britain, France & China).

Yalta & Potsdam Conferences - Much of the post-war world was mapped out in these two conference and they help set up the Cold War. At Yalta in February of 1945 the big three agreed to partition Germany, they convinced Stalin to hold free elections in Eastern Europe (he never did) and the Soviets agreed to help with Japan 3 months after Germany’s defeat. At Potsdam, Truman informs Stalin of the bomb and the allies agreed on the terms of German partition.

What factors led to the U.S. decision to drop the Atomic bomb on Hiroshima?

The bloodbath in the Pacific battles on the way to Japan (esp. Iwo Jima and Okinawa), convinced Americans that an invasion of Japan would be horrendous. So, the US wanted to end the war quickly and save American lives. It is also possible that the US was hoping the bomb would intimidate the Russians into behaving better in Eastern Europe and Asia, which led us to drop the bomb quickly after its initial testing.

Give examples of how minorities in the U.S. helped in the war effort.

Women worked in factories to make war goods and other minorities fought in the war and also worked in factories. Latinos served in integrated units in the war and also migrated from places like Mexico to work as laborers in the US using the Bracero program to legally come to the US. Native Americans also fought in the war and served as code talkers for the army. Even one of the flag raisers on Iwo Jima was a Native American. Black Americans also fought in the war, but served in segregated units mostly. They also moved out of the South to take jobs in the war. Japanese-Americans also fought for the US despite internment. In fact, the most highly decorated unit of the war was a Japanese-American unit the served in Italy.

Early Cold War:

Truman Doctrine - The US supported non-communist forces in Greece and Turkey after WW2. This policy of helping nations resist communism formed what became known as containment, where the US would supply nations with money and resources to fight against communism.

NATO - European nations convinced the US to form NATO after the crisis in Berlin in 1948 that led to the Berlin Airlift. This was a defensive alliance made up of western European countries, Canada, and the US. It was also the first entangling alliance in US history, signaling a profound shift in US foreign policy from traditional isolation to interventionist.

Berlin Airlift - In 1948 Stalin tries to force the allies out of Berlin by cutting power to the western sectors of the city. The US responded by flying in supplies for almost a year to keep the city alive. Some people advocated abandoning the city while others wanted war to liberate all of Berlin. Truman chose the moderate option that saved the city but avoided war.

Containment - Policy established by the Truman Doctrine that would shape US policy until Reagan. The US would intervene in nations to stop the spread of communism. The Marshall Plan, NATO, Korean War & even Vietnam are all part of this strategy.

Marshall Plan - Economic recovery plan for Europe where the US poured in billions of dollars to help Europe recover from the war. Communism was a real threat to take over many western European countries because of economic desperation. The US thought that morally, and for its own strategic interests, they should help rebuild Europe.

Korean War - When North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, the US responded by sending in troops to protect the South in order to contain communism. The US would eventually cross into North Korea, which brought in the Chinese, causing the war to end in a stalemate.

Red China - In 1949 Mao won the Chinese civil war which was shocking to the US. The world’s largest nation was now communist.

Soviets test A-Bomb in 1949 - The world changed when the Soviets tested their own nuclear weapon. The US no longer held a monopoly on nuclear bombs which would eventually usher in the world of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

Warsaw Pact - When NATO brought in West Germany in 1955 the Soviets responded by organizing their own alliance of western European allies.

Hydrogen Bomb - In 1952 the US tested its first hydrogen bomb which was 1000 times more powerful than the bombs dropped in WW2. The following year the Soviets tested one too. The world was now even more dangerous as both sides began a nuclear arms race.

Brinkmanship - Policy of Eisenhower where conventional military forces were limited because they were expensive but resources were put into building more bombs. This was seen as a way of saving money but limited America’s ability to respond to a crisis. Critics called this brinkmanship because the US was always on the brink of nuclear war.

GATT - The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was implemented in Europe after WW2. These higher tariffs were designed to protect Europe from cheaper American goods while they rebuilt after the war.

Long Telegram - Written by George Kennan in 1946, he sends this to the US government. It says that Stalin needed a scapegoat for his problems in the USSR and so it was in his best interest to pick fights with the US in order to heighten nationalism. Kennan then recommended that the US adopt a policy of containing Soviet aggression. Kennan’s ideas would help formulate the Truman Doctrine.

McCarthyism - As the Cold War developed in the 1940s and 50s, Amreicans became increasingly concerned about communist infiltration at home. Joe McCarthy used this fear to his advantage and went after alleged communists in American society.

Gary Powers Incident - In 1960 Gary Powers was shot down over the USSR as he was flying a U2 spy plane. The US denied they were spying on the Soviets at first, but when Powers was captured we had to admit that we were openly violating Russian airspace to spy.

What types of people/groups were targets of the Red Scare?

Many liberal leaning groups and people were targets of anti-communism. Labor unions, Hollywood actors, civil rights activists, teachers & college professors were among the groups targeted. HUAC questioned leader in all of these groups to find out how much influence communism had in American society.

Give examples of ways the U.S. attempted to contain communism. Was the U.S. successful?

Containment tended to much more successful in Europe than anywhere else. With NATO, the Marshall Plan, Truman Doctrine, etc., the US successfully halted communist expansion in Europe. But in Asia the policy was less successful. Although South Korea was defended in the Korean War, South Vietnam fell to communism in 1975 and China had fallen in 1949. Even in the western hemisphere in Cuba, Fidel Castro brought communism to our doorstep.

Mid-Century Domestic Politics:

Fair Deal - Truman's domestic program mostly failed. He did manage to up the minimum wage and expand social security payments. But his proposals for universal health coverage, better housing, and guaranteed full employment were rejected.

Ike’s Middle Path - Ike was a moderate who was fiscally conservative who was concerned about having a balanced budget, but also protected some of the liberal policies of the New Deal like social security and minimum wages.

Sputnik - Soviet satellite in 1957 that scares Americans into thinking the Russians were ahead in the Cold War and that they might arm space with nucs. This caused the US to spend more on STEM education and invest in AP programs.

G.I. Bill - The government gave returning veterans low interest loans for housing or to start a small business. And they paid for veterans to go to college, helping push an entire generation of people into the middle class.

Federal Aid Highway Act - Massive infrastructure project designed for a car crazy nation and for military purposes in the 1950s.

Levittown - Mass produced homes built after WW2, some funded by the GI Bill, drove down housing costs and opened up opportunities for people to own their own home in the suburbs.

Feminine Mystique - Book written by Betty Friedan that is critical of American culture holding women back from advancing in society and pursuing careers. Book was published in 1963 and starts a new wave of feminism that pushed for equality of opportunity for women.

HUAC - House Un-American Activities Committee investigated communist activities in the US in the period before, but especially after, WW2.

Sunbelt - Area in the southern part of the US from South Carolina to California that sees tremendous population growth after WW2 because of better weather (air conditioning) and the expansion of government and technology jobs in those areas.

Beatniks - People in the 1950s that did not conform to the mass culture of the day. They rejected the conformity of the decade and set the groundwork for the counterculture of the 1960s.

Taft-Hartley Act - This act passed in 1947 amended the Wagner Act by cutting back on some union activities. It banned certain types of strikes and allowed states to pass laws outlawing closed shops. In the atmosphere of anti-communism, unions were against seen with some suspicion.

What impact did the television have on U.S. society in the mid-1950s?

TV culture was conformist in nature with shows like Leave it to Beaver emphasizing the nuclear family. It also changed politics because politicians now had to campaign on TV, which brings more of a showman aspect to political races. Eisenhower was the first US Presidential candidate to use TV to get voters.

How and why was Joseph McCarthy able to conduct his anti-communist crusade in the 1950s?

Americans felt that communism was a real threat to their way of life after WW2. The Berlin Blockade, the fall of China, the Soviets exploding their own bomb and the invasion of South Korea confirmed in the minds of many Americans that the threat was real.

Explain the success or failure of Truman’s domestic programs. Why?

See above. But also, the country turned to the right after WW2 and rejected many of Truman’s Fair Deal ideas. Some of that skepticism was rooted in the Cold War as Americans were skeptical of large government like you might find in socialist countries. Also, Americans were not desperate for help like they had been in the 1930s so government programs were not as popular.

Civil Rights Era:

Martin Luther King Jr. - Although there is no real leader of the civil rights movement, King is the closest thing. He believed in non-violent protest and never wavered on that stance. He emerged to prominence during the Montgomery Bus Boycott and became the movements most recognizable face. In the years before his death he became more radical as he called for an end to the Vietnam War and started a Poor People’s Campaign in an attempt to make society more equitable.

Montgomery Bus Boycott - Started in 1955 after the arrest of Rosa Parks, the boycott lasted a year until the courts ruled the bus segregation was unconstitutional. The Boycott shattered the myth that blacks accepted segregation.

Brown v. Board - 1954 Supreme Court decision that ruled school segregation was illegal because it violated the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. This ignites the movement by overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.

Southern Manifesto - This was a pledge by southern representatives to ignore the Brown ruling, showing the difficulty in undoing social norms in the south.

Little Rock Central High School - The first large scale attempt to integrate schools in the south. Little Rock was chosen because it was a moderate city, but resistance was fierce and Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus brought in the National Guard to prevent integration. Finally Ike brought in federal troops to integrate the school.

Browder v. Gayle - Court decision that rule public bussing segregation to be illegal, ending the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Boynton v. Virginia - Supreme Court ruling in 1960 the rule interstate transportation segregation was illegal. Activists organized the Freedom Rides as a result.

Freedom Rides - Organized to force the federal government to enforce the Court decision in Boynton. Buses were bombed, riders were beaten, but in the end the Kennedy administration stepped in to protect the riders.

Sit-In Movement - Orchestrated by college students in Greensboro, NC, their success at desegregating lunch counters in the upper south led to other protests like read ins at libraries and wade ins at beaches, all to fight segregation. Resistance was more fierce in the deep South where it took the Civil Rights Act to undo segregation.

Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) - Formed by young people, with the help of MLK, they organized nonviolent protests, marches and sitins. Later in the 1960s they dropped the N from their name and adopted the ideas of Black Power.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) - Civil Rights organization founded by King after Montgomery to organize black churches and religious leaders to fight for civil rights.

Birmingham Campaign - In 1963 King organized protests in Birmingham, which was known as the most segregated city in the South. Police commissioner Bull Connor responded with violence that included dogs and fire hoses. The response and the violence perpetrated against blacks like the bombing of a church in which children died, led JFK to introduce the Civil Rights Bill to Congress.

March on Washington - In response to Kennedy’s proposed bill, civil rights activists organized this to pressure Congress to pass the law. MLK gave his famous “I have a dream” speech.

Selma Marches - After the passage of the CR Act in 1964, King and others turned to voting rights in the South. They planned a march from Selma to Montgomery, AL but were attacked by police on the Edmund Pettus Bridge. This violence got the attention of President Johnson who proposed the Voting Rights Act.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 - LBJ pushed thru the CR Act in 1964 which forbids discrimination in public places based on race, gender and religion. It was the most sweeping CR Act in U.S. history and was a gigantic victory that banned all de jure segregation in public places.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Law that banned racial discrimination in voting and allowed the federal government to monitor election practices in southern states. As a result, black voter registration surged.

Black Power - A term coined by SNCC leader Stokely Carmichael, it combines the rhetoric of Malcolm X with the direct action of King. It advocated for blacks to defend themselves instead of blind obedience to nonviolence. This more violent approach led to more militant clashes with authority and slowly eroded support for the movement. It was also more prevalent in northern cities where de facto segregation offered little redress for issues of poverty and lack of jobs.

Malcolm X - Convert to the Nation of Islam, he became the most visible black militant of the period, encouraging black nationalism, self defense, and a separation of the races because he believed that racism was too deeply imbedded in US society.

Elijah Muhammed - Founder of the Nation of Islam, an American Muslim church. He believed in separation of the races and direct confrontation with racism.

Black Panthers - Organization formed in Oakland in 1966, they adopted the rhetoric of Malcolm X and represented a changing, and more militant shift in the civil rights movement.

14th Amendment - Reconstruction era amendment, the equal protection clause was used by the Courts to overturn many southern laws that upheld segregation

Describe King’s tactics in the fight for civil rights and why you believe they were successful.

King used nonviolence always and never compromised on that principle. With nonviolence, he always sought to show the hypocrisy of his oppressors and sow sympathy for the movement. At its peak, the civil rights movement had broad support that included the federal government and white moderates from the north.

Why does the Civil Rights movement begin to lose support by the mid to late 1960s?

By the mid 1960s the movement was becoming more radical. The ideas of self defense and Black Power were make the movement prone to more violence. People also spoke out against the war in Vietnam because it disproportionately impacted minorities and others from the lower classes. The movement also advocated for affirmative action programs that gave racial preferences to minorities.

Turbulent 1960s:

New Frontier - JFK’s domestic agenda, he proposed increasing minimum wage and social security benefits as well as programs to clear slums and redevelop failing neighborhoods. He also proposed the Peace Corps in order to send Americans overseas to work in poverty stricken areas of the world in order to curb the appeal of communism.

Cuban Missile Crisis - Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 in Cuba. In 1962 the Soviets were putting nuclear weapons in Cuba, 90 miles from the US, in violation of the long held Monroe Doctrine. JFK responded with a naval quarantine which saw the Soviets back down, saving the world from potential nuclear annihilation.

Berlin Wall - By 1961 many of the educated and elite were leaving the eastern bloc nations thru West Berlin. As a result, the Soviets constructed the Berlin Wall in order to stop the movement of people between east and west.

Great Society (Medicare, Medicaid, etc…) - LBJ pushed through dozens of new laws in his first year in office to battle poverty and racial injustice. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act spend money on public schools, the Immigration Act of 1965 got rid of the quota system and encouraged immigration from Asia, and he proposed Medicare and Medicaid to help ease health care costs for the elderly and poor respectively.

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) - Organization founded in the early 1960s to fight against racism and the Military-Industrial complex, they became the leader of the anti-war movement during the Vietnam War.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution - After an incident off the coast of North Vietnam, where the USS Maddox was allegedly attacked, Congress authorized the President to take any necessary steps to protect US interests in Vietnam.

Americanization of Vietnam - America already had advisors in Vietnam, but in 1965 LBJ introduced combat troops and their numbers grew yearly until they numbered over 500,000 in 1969. Despite the Americanization of the war, America was never able to subdue Vietnam and the war turned into a war of attrition.

Geneva Accords - In 1956, the US, French & Vietnamese agreed on these, which called for a temporary division of Vietnam between North & South and an election the following year to unify the nation. South Vietnam, with the backing of the US, refused to allow the election because the North was essentially a totalitarian state by 1956. This allows the communists to blame democratic forces for undermining an election.

Tet Offensive - Was a massive offensive launched against the US in Vietnam in January of 1968. At a time when the government told the American people that we were winning, this proved to many Americans that the war was not almost over. This increases antiwar sentiment in the US and creates a growing sense of the Credibility Gap.

Counter-culture - Young people in the 1960s who opposed the conformity of the older generations. They advocated doing what made you feel good, which led to increased drug use, sexual freedom, and less conventional hair and clothing styles. Part of the New Left they were against the war and many things that Americans had embraced.

Chicago Democratic Convention - In 1968 Democrats argued about an antiwar provision in their platform. Protesters arrived to pressure the party to end the war but were met by police who were intent on keeping order. The violence that ensued showed had divided America was and how fractured the Democratic Party had become, helping Nixon to victory.

American Indian Movement (AIM) - Initially formed in 1968 to help deal with urban poverty for native Americans, they expanded to fight for tribal and treaty rights for native people in the US.

National Organization for Women - Founded by Betty Friedan and other feminists in 1966, they pushed for the Equal Rights Amendment, banning sex discrimination in the workplace, abortion rights and equal opportunities in education and child care.

Equal Rights Amendment - Originally proposed in the 1920s, it failed to pass but was reintroduced in the 1970s, failing to pass by the votes of a few states. Many people, including many women, opposed the amendment because it would take away the distinctions between men and women under the law (for instance, the military draft).

Credibility Gap - The Vietnam War widened this as Americans increasingly did not trust their government. The Tet Offensive, and later the Pentagon Papers, which outlined the deception the government had used to expand the war, would undermine confidence in America’s leaders. The Watergate scandal was the perfect topper to the expansion of the Credibility Gap.

Silent Majority - Blue collar workers and southern whites, and really anybody that was a tax paying, hard working, patriotic American, was what Nixon called the Silent Majority. They were the key to Nixon’s victory and helped the Republican Party chisel away at the old Democratic New Deal Coalition. The Hard Hat Riots in NY in 1970 are a great example of the Silent Majority.

New Left - The New Left was a broad political movement mainly in the 1960s and 1970s consisting of activists in the Western world who campaigned for a broad range of social issues such as civil and political rights, feminism, gay rights, abortion-rights, gender roles and drug policy reforms.

The African-American Civil Rights movement sparked other movements for civil rights. Give examples and explain.

The Civil Rights movement in the US had taught groups that perceived oppression how to fight and win concessions. Through nonviolence and direct action, groups for womens rights, Latino rights, gay rights and Native American rights, etc. fought for change in American society.

Why was LBJ forced to spend less on the Great Society in the 1960s?

The Great Society programs were massively expensive, but so was the war in Vietnam. Although LBJ hoped to end poverty with these programs, some of the spending was limited because of the war in Vietnam, causing Johnson to label the war his “bitch”.

The 1970s:

Watergate - The Nixon White House was caught trying to spy on Democratic headquarters in the 1972 election. After an extensive investigation, Nixon was forced to resign for his complicity in the break-ins. The tapes that Nixon installed at the White House ended up being the smoking gun that forced his resignation. This event helps fuel the widening credibility gap from the Vietnam War.

Vietnamization - Nixon promised to end the war in Vietnam and his plan was to remove US troops but continue to fund and train the South Vietnamese army. Unfortunately the S. Vietnamese army was too corrupt and inefficient to defend itself without US intervention.

Cambodian Incursion - In 1970 Nixon allowed the military in Vietnam to cross into Cambodia to destroy enemy sanctuaries. When word got out protests erupted on campuses across the country that was highlighted by the shootings at Kent State. Nixon’s subsequent bombing of Cambodia was the impetus for the passing of the War Powers Act, which stripped some power away from the President that he had gotten from the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

Fall of Vietnam - After US troops withdrew, the war started up again and in 1975 the North overtook the South and Congress refused to intervene this time.

1973 Oil Embargo - The US and many of our allies supported Israel in a war against their Arab neighbors in 1973 causing OPEC to put an embargo on oil shipments. The limited the supply of oil and created much higher prices for gasoline, ushering in a period of high inflation.

Stagflation - The US economy began to stagnate in the 1970s because oil and energy prices skyrocketed. Inflation caused by energy prices, increases in social security payments, and the war in Vietnam, made the US economy less competitive as production fell and prices rose.

Detente - By the 1970s there was a belief by many in the foreign policy community that the US & USSR should learn to get along and cooperate. That hostility had led to a dangerous world (Cuban Missile crisis, bomb tests, Vietnam, etc…) and that communism and capitalism were really just two different, yet equal systems. This would lead to increased cooperation with things like the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties, and most thought Detente was good.

Camp David Accords - An agreement reached between Egypt and Israel in which Israel ceded land back to Egypt in exchange for Egypt recognizing Israel’s right to exist. This was a foreign policy victory for Jimmy Carter.

Oil Shocks - As a result of the Iranian Revolution, oil prices again skyrocketed, causing gas shortages and running up inflation again.

Crisis of Confidence - Speech given by Jimmy Carter in which he implores Americans to believe in themselves again, saying that our biggest problem was a lack of confidence. This would become known as his malaise speech and would eventually held solidify his defeat in 1980.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan - Many people believed that communism was on the march in 1979 and that America was losing the Cold War and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was evidence of this. The US would eventually support Afghan rebels and bog the Soviets down in a war they could not afford to fight.

Iranian Revolution - Islamic Fundamentalists overthrew the US backed government of Iran and took American hostages. For over a year the hostages were a reminder of Carter’s incompetence in the minds of many. The revolution also send oil prices skyrocketing, which also helped Reagan win in 1980.

List factors that contributed to stagflation and the economic malaise of the 1970s.

Inflation caused by energy prices, increases in social security payments, and the war in Vietnam, made the US economy less competitive as production fell and prices rose. This caused many US factories to close or move overseas to more competitive markets causing a decay in old industrial centers of the Midwest called the Rust Belt. After WW2 the US helped rebuild and defend nations like South Korea, Taiwan and Japan, which became America’s biggest economic rivals.

What factors led to the decline of the New Deal coalition that made Democrats the majority party for decades?

The increasing radicalism of the Democratic Party in the 1960s and the mainstreaming of counterculture ideas in the 1970s caused many traditional Democrats to leave the party. They were turned off by race violence, perceived victimhood of other groups like the NOW, affirmative action programs, and what they saw as UnAmerican rhetoric. As a result many blue collar workers, southern whites, suburban voters and rural Americans left the Democratic Party, undermining their claim as the majority party in the US.

The Reagan Revolution (1980s):

Reaganomics - Supply side or Trickle Down as critics called it, the philosophy called for deregulation of the economy with tax cuts. The theory said that by putting more money into peoples pockets you would create more taxable economic activity that would grow the economy. Workers would then get jobs, pay taxes, have pensions and health care. Therefore, the tax cuts may go to the rich, but the benefits would trickle down to workers.

Reagan Doctrine - Was the policy of backing anti-communist forces in third world countries in order to undermine communism everywhere. Technically this is part of Reagan’s policy of Rollback and led to the funding of anti-communist groups like the Contras in Nicaragua.

Brezhnev Doctrine - Essentially communism by force in Eastern Europe. Anytime there was political unrest in Eastern Europe the Soviets sent in the tanks like they did in Czechoslovakia in 1968. Fear of Soviet invasion kept most Eastern bloc countries in line. But when it became clear by the late 1980s that the Doctrine no longer applied, the Berlin Wall fell.

Iran-Contra Scandal - The Reagan administration sold arms to Iran illegally and funneled the proceeds to the Contras, who were fighting the communist government of Nicaragua. Reagan was almost impeached over this scandal but aids took the fall instead.

New Right - Alliance of social (anti-abortion, anti-drug, anti-counterculture) and economic conservatives (tax cuts and deregulation) that helped Reagan win elections and remake the Republican Party.

Able Archer - Reagan’s open hostility toward the USSR and communism in general made the Soviets uneasy. When NATO ran high level invasion simulations of Eastern Europe the Soviets mistook this as an actual invasion and almost launched nuclear weapons. This causes Reagan to change his tone a bit as nuclear war was his worst nightmare.

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) - This was Reagan’s plan to put satellites into space that would eventually be able to shoot down incoming missiles, essentially forming a shield for the US. Reagan abhorred Mutually Assured Destruction but the SDI scared the Russians because MAD gave them equal power in the Cold War and provided stability.

Tiananmen Square - After the unrest in Eastern Europe, many thought China would be next to fall and students took to the streets protesting for democracy. Eventually the Chinese government violently put down the protests, killing hundreds.

Reagan Democrats - Demographics of people, mostly blue collar workers, who had traditionally been Democrats and part of FDRs old New Deal coalition, they voted for Reagan in the 1980s because of his patriotism, optimism & his stance on social issues. These people were similar in many ways to the “Silent Majority” of Nixon.

Robert Bork - Appointed to the Supreme Court by Reagan, Democrats blocked his nomination because they considered him too extreme to the right. As the Court became more conservative in the 1980s, Democrats feared that the Court would overturn liberal gains like abortion from previous decisions so they began to more thoroughly examine not just judicial qualifications, but ideological ones as well.

Gorbachev - Became leader of the USSR in 1985, he was young and the first college educated leader since Lenin. He recognized the USSR was in trouble economically so he sought out to reform the system with programs like Glasnost & Perestroika, which gave limited free speech and integrated some capitalism into the system.

In what ways did the Reagan Administration help bring about an end to the Cold War?

Reagan rejected Detente and MAD and tried to undermine communism wherever he could. He believed that the US and capitalist democracy were morally superior systems and should seek to Rollback communism. He worked out a special relationship with Saudi Arabia to lower oil prices, which devastated the Soviet economy. He engaged in a new arms race that he knew the Soviets could not afford. And in the end was willing to negotiate an end to the Cold War when Gorbachev finally reached out in desperation.

What was the focus of Reagan’s arms buildup?

Reagan wanted to deal with the Russians from a position of strength so he engaged in a large scale arms buildup. But the key was to focus on high level technology and make new weapons that the Russians could not match. This would tip the balance in the Cold War to the US and make the Soviets spend money they did not have to try to keep pace. The result was new weapons like stealth fighters and the Abrams tank. But SDI was the game changer here, as the Soviets were convinced that we could make the system work, which would essentially negate MAD and any leverage the Soviets had.

Explain Reagan’s economic philosophy.

See Reaganomics Above, but remember Reagan thought the government was not the solution to problems, it was the problem.

Post Cold War America:

Impeachment - Clinton was impeached in 1998 for obstruction and perjury because he lied under oath in a sexual harassment deposition. He was acquitted because most people believed that his crime was more personal that it was political.

NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement tore down most tariffs between the US, Mexico and Canada. As a more conservative issue, Clinton had to convince Democrats that this was good economics. Free trade tends to create more economic efficiency and lower consumer prices, but can also see jobs move around looking for cheaper labor.

Hillary Care - Truman had tried universal health care, but Clinton put his wife in charge of trying to implement it in the 1990s. Republicans argued that it was big government overreach and the plan failed to pass.

Tech Boom - The 1990s saw an explosion in technology as the internet changed the way people did almost everything. Stock prices soared as new technology companies seemed to be the wave of the future. The tech bubble did burst in 1999, but technology remains a key feature of life today.

Contract with America - Led by Newt Gingrich, the Republicans won control of both the House and Senate in 1994 for the first time in 4 decades. Gingrich and other Republicans ran on their Contract with America that promised small government, low taxes, and individual freedoms, very much in the ideological mold of Reagan.

Persian Gulf War - In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait and the US responded by building and international coalition in Saudi Arabia to retake Kuwait and eject the Iraqi army. After extensive bombing of Iraqi military targets the US launched Operation Desert Storm in the spring of 1991 and defeated the Iraqi army in less than 100 hours. After the humiliation of Vietnam, this made the US look strong again and George H.W. Bush’s population soared. Yet he lost the next election because Bill Clinton managed to turn the focus on the economy, which had slipped into a recession, and Ross Perot took votes from Bush as well.

2000 election - Extremely close election that came down to the state of Florida. After multiple recounts, Bush held a small lead Gore, and the Supreme Court ruled that any further recounts needed to stop, essentially giving the Presidency to Bush.

Bush Doctrine - After 9/11 George W. Bush said the world was divided between people who were against terrorism or people who supported terrorism. He also said that the US would root out terrorism and anybody who supported terrorists, say essentially you are with us, or against us.

Invasion of Afghanistan & Iraq - The US launched an invasion of Afghanistan in the months after 9/11 because even though most of the hijackers were from Saudi Arabia, they had trained in the failed state of Afghanistan. More than a year later, the US invaded Iraq because they said that Saddam Hussein supported terrorism and was in possession of weapons of mass destruction. Both wars ended up being long and costly in lives and money and illustrated the challenges in fighting terrorism and state building. Terrorism tends to be decentralized and random, making it very difficult to defeat.

9/11 Attacks - 19 hijackers took 4 planes, running 2 into the WTC in NYC, 1 into the Pentagon, and the other crashed in Pennsylvania. It was the worst attack on the US since Pearl Harbor at was the beginning of the US war on terrorism.

Great Recession - At the end of the Bush administration the bottom fell out of the real estate and housing market, crushing many of the banks in the US. This set off a downward spiral economically and forced the US government to bail out some of the banks and car companies with loans, as some argued they were too big to fail. Many common people wondered why big banks and corporations could get bailouts but they could not, creating resentment.

Supreme Court Cases:

Bakke v. Univ. of California - 1978: The Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action was legal, but in Bakke they ruled that quotas were illegal. In this case the U. of Cal was setting aside specific numbers of spots in college programs for minorities and the Court ruled that was illegal. Race could be taken into consideration but quotas went too far.

Mapp v. Ohio - 1961: was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court ruled that the exclusionary rule, which prevents prosecutors from using evidence in court that was obtained by violating the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, applies not only to the U.S. federal government, but also to the U.S. states.

Miranda v. Arizona - 1966: Ruled that testimony given by defendants could not be used against them unless authorities could prove that a defendant knew their rights. This is why perps are read their rights when they are arrested.

Engle v. Vitale - 1962: was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that it is unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and encourage its recitation in public schools.

Gideon v. Wainwright - 1963: Supreme Court case in which the Court unanimously held that in criminal cases states are required under the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution to provide an attorney to defendants who are unable to afford their own attorneys.

Boynton v. Virginia - 1960: ruled that interstate transportation segregation was unconstitutional. Trains, buses, bus stations, etc… had to be desegregated. This case set off the Freedom Rides.