World History & International Exchange Flashcards

The Silk Roads: Linked Eurasia through the trade of luxury goods like silk, porcelain, and spices. Civilizations protected these routes to facilitate the spread of ideas, religions (Buddhism), and technology.
Caravanserai: Rest areas for caravans located approximately every $100\,\text{miles}$ to protect merchants and facilitate long-distance travel.
The Mongol Network: Under Genghis (Chinggis) Khan, Ogodei, Mongke, and Khubilai, the Mongols created the largest land empire, protecting trade routes and fostering the circulation of goods and disease (Black Death).
The Sea Roads (Indian Ocean): Facilitated mass trade of bulk goods (textiles, rice, sugar) using monsoon winds and magnetic compasses. Islam spread peacefully through merchant networks.
The Sand Roads (Trans-Saharan): Linked North Africa and the Mediterranean to West Africa using the Arabian camel. Key trade items included gold, salt, and slaves.

Ottoman Empire: Founded by Osman Gazi; captured Constantinople in $1453$ . Utilized the Devshirme system to recruit Janissaries (elite Christian-born soldiers).
Safavid Empire: Centered in Persia and established Shi’a Islam as the state religion. Known for the rule of Shah Abbas and the capital of Esfahan.
Mughal Empire: Muslim-led dynasty in India founded by Babur. Akbar the Great promoted religious tolerance, while Aurangzeb later reversed these policies, leading to decline.
Qing Dynasty: Manchu rulers who expanded China into Central Asia. Maintained the civil service exam but enforced the queue hairstyle on Han Chinese men.
Songhai Empire: West African state utilizing Trans-Saharan trade routes. Timbuktu became a major center for Islamic learning.

Exploration Motivations: Driven by ’God, Glory, and Gold,’ Europeans (Spain, Portugal, Britain) sought direct maritime routes to Asia to bypass Muslim intermediaries.
Columbian Exchange: Global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases. The ‘Great Dying’ killed $80\text{–}90\%$ of indigenous Americans, while American crops (corn, potatoes) spurred European population growth.
Mercantilism: Economic theory that national wealth is measured in gold and silver; colonies provided raw materials and served as markets for finished goods.
Maritime Empire Innovations: Development of joint-stock companies (British and Dutch East India Companies) and improved navigational tools (astrolabe, caravel).

The Enlightenment: Movement emphasizing empiricism and natural rights (Laissez Faire economics by Adam Smith). Challenged divine right and promoted secularism.
North American Revolution ( $1775–1783$ ): Colonists fought for independence from Britain over taxes and lack of representation; established a republic based on Enlightenment ideals.
French Revolution ( $1789–1815$ ): Radical social upheaval involving the Estates General, the Terror under Maximilien Robespierre, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Haitian Revolution ( $1791–1804$ ): Only successful slave revolt in history, led by Toussaint Louverture against French colonial rule.
Latin American Revolutions: Creoles led independence movements (e.g., Simon Bolivar), but social hierarchies often remained intact after Spanish rule ended.

Origins: Began in Great Britain due to coal deposits, iron, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt.
Technological Advancement: The Second Industrial Revolution focused on steel (Bessemer process), chemicals, and electricity. The Transcontinental Railroad ( $1869$ ) linked the U.S. coasts.
Social Responses: Formation of labor unions to combat poor working conditions. Karl Marx proposed socialism in The Communist Manifesto as a critique of capitalism.
Meiji Restoration: Japan modernized rapidly by abolishing feudalism and adopting Western military and industrial practices to preserve independence.

Rationales: Social Darwinism, nationalism, and the ‘civilizing mission’ were used to justify European expansion in Africa and Asia.
Scramble for Africa: The Berlin Conference ( $1884$ ) divided Africa among European powers without African input. King Leopold II of Belgium exploited the Congo for rubber.
Imperialism in Asia: Britain gained control of India (the ‘jewel in the crown’) following the Sepoy Mutiny ( $1857$ ). The Opium Wars forced China to open ports via the Treaty of Nanjing.

World War I ( $1914–1918$ ): Caused by militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism (M.A.I.N.). Triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip.
Interwar Period: Characterized by hyperinflation in Germany and the rise of totalitarian regimes (Fascism in Italy, Nazism in Germany, Stalinism in the USSR).
World War II ( $1937\text{–}1945$ ): Global war involving Blitzkrieg tactics and the Holocaust (genocide of $6\,\text{million}$ Jews). Ended with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The Cold War: Decades of ideological tension between the U.S. (capitalism) and USSR (communism), marked by proxy wars (Korea, Vietnam) and the Nuclear Arms Race.
Chinese Communism: Mao Zedong led the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution, aiming to transform China into a socialist society through peasant mobilization.
Decolonization: Former colonies in Africa and Asia (e.g., India under Gandhi) sought independence. The Apartheid system in South Africa persisted until $1994$ .

Green Revolution: Use of modified seeds and fertilizers to increase food production via technology, though it caused environmental strain.
International Cooperation: Formation of the United Nations (UN) ( $1945$ ) and the World Bank to regulate global affairs and economics.
Contemporary Challenges: Global spread of diseases (HIV/AIDS, COVID- $19$ ), environmental degradation (desertification), and the rise of digital connectivity.

Document Practice: * Doc 1: An outsider’s view (e.g., Marco Polo) of Buddhists as ‘idolaters’ to impress Europeans. * Doc 2: Korean knowledge of surrounding nations and a desire to be at the center. * Doc 3: Mythical/monster-like views of foreigners due to lack of understanding. * Doc 4: Rare Chinese exploration showing interest in similar customs abroad. * Doc 5: Observations on the spread of the Black Death across Asia and Europe.