The 1960s in the United States
Chapter 29: The Shifting Terrain of American Culture (1960s-1970s)
Introduction: The Tumultuous 1960s
The 1960s in the U.S. marked a period of rapid cultural transformation.
The prevailing lifestyles of the 1950s transitioned into a counterculture.
Groups like women and African-Americans began to actively challenge traditional norms and fight for equal rights.
Richard Nixon, before his resignation on August 5, 1974, sought détente with China and the Soviet Union and ended the Vietnam War.
However, Nixon's abuse of power led to his own disgrace.
The Youth Movement and the New Left
The baby boomer generation, as they entered college, possessed significant influence due to their sheer numbers.
While many embraced the typical college experience, some adhered to 1950s values, condemning radical ideologies.
Students of the 1960s admired the outsiders of the 1950s and rebelled, resulting in the Port Huron Statement in June 1962.
This statement called for a "new left" and led to the creation of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
The SDS advocated for a "participatory democracy" where individuals could directly influence decisions affecting their lives.
They also valued love and creativity while opposing materialism, militarism, and racism.
Television played a crucial role in exposing events like the assassination of John F. Kennedy and the Vietnam War atrocities.
Characteristics of the New Left movement:
Rejected Marxist ideals.
Emulated the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.
Believed in uncompromisingly restructuring society to align with their liberal ideals.
Terms:
Port Huron Statement
Students for a Democratic Society
From Protest to Resistance: Campus Activism
Mario Savio established the Berkeley Free Speech Movement (FPM) at the University of California in response to restrictions on political activity.
The FPM staged sit-ins, leading to arrests and further protests across campuses nationwide.
Students protested for revisions to the school system that would:
Include necessary ROTC programs
Abolish dress codes
Abolish parietal codes
Abolish the grading system
Their proposed grading system included:
Fewer required courses
Smaller classes
Teachers teaching instead of demanding students to research.
Radical students advocated for integration and reducing the military's influence on education.
The Vietnam War and the draft intensified the movement.
The SDS organized teach-ins, anti-war marches, and harassed military recruiters.
By 1968, the SDS supported draft resistance and civil disobedience, boasting 100,000 members across 300 campuses.
The movement spread globally, mirroring the U.S. expansion.
The New Mobilization saw 300,000 students participate in the March Against Death in Washington D.C. to protest the war.
Youth in the 1960s believed they could influence political decisions.
Terms:
Mario Savio
New Mobilization
Kent State and Jackson State: Tragic Confrontations
Nixon's invasion of Cambodia, a staging area for North Vietnamese troops, following an attempt at "Vietnamizing" the war, sparked outrage among anti-war protestors.
Students at Kent State University protested, leading to the National Guard being called in by Ohio Governor James Rhodes.
The National Guard fired into a crowd of protestors, resulting in four deaths, including two innocent bystanders.
Ten days later, Mississippi police fired into a women's dormitory at Jackson State College, killing two black students.
These events led to unprecedented strikes and radicalized previously uninvolved students.
The U.S. was divided between radicals and those who opposed violent repercussions.
Terms:
Vietnamization
Kent State
Jackson State
Legacy of Student Frenzy
The New Left dispersed after a bombing at the University of Wisconsin resulted in a student's death, which the nation condemned.
Some students engaged in "streaking," while others pursued women's rights, new careers, parenthood, or mystic cults.
Radicals continued their anti-war efforts through underground movements.
A conservative backlash emerged, exemplified by Ronald Reagan's election as governor of California.
Impacts on universities:
Less dictatorship lifestyle
Dress codes and curfews disappeared.
ROTC became an elective.
Increased minority enrollment.
Students gained involvement in educational evolution.
Multiculturalism, integrating minorities and women into textbooks, became significant.
Female activists became central to the Feminist movement in the 1970s.
Terms:
Multiculturalism
The Counterculture: Rejecting Mainstream Society
Student activism led to the counterculture, which rejected middle-class values focusing on:
Self-sufficiency.
Sharing resources.
Rejecting consumerism.
"Hippies" embraced drugs, rejected employment, and engaged in open sexual activity.
Historian Theodore Roszack described this counterculture as "a culture so radically disaffiliated from the mainstream assumptions of our society that it scarcely looks to many as a culture at all, but takes on the alarming appearance of a barbarian intrusion.”
Hippies and Drugs: Exploring Altered States
Marijuana was embraced as a gateway to new experiences.
Almost half the students used marijuana and hallucinogenic stimulants like LSD.
Professors were fired for conducting "acid tests" involving LSD use during movies like Hair (1967) and Alice's Restaurant (1969).
Influenced by mysticism, hippies embraced "sex, drugs, and rock-and-roll."
Hippie characteristics:
Shaggy beards and long hair
Wore surplus military clothing, ripped jeans, and tie-dye T-shirts
Experimented with marijuana and LSD
Despised consumerism and rejected normal society
Term: Hippies
Musical Revolution: Songs of Protest and Change
Songs protesting the Vietnam War and racism gained popularity, paralleling anti-war and civil rights movements.
The Woodstock festival in August 1969 drew 400,000 hippies who indulged in rock music, drugs, sex, and expressing their ideals.
The counterculture was marred by the ritualistic murders committed by Charles Manson and his followers and violence at a Rolling Stones concert.
Critics argued that the 1950s culture would never return.
Term: Beatlemania
The Sexual Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Intimacy
The counterculture promoted a permissive attitude towards sex like "go anywhere, do anything".
The birth control pill and the option of abortion contributed to this shift.
The Roe vs. Wade Supreme Court case abolished state abortion bans.
The Supreme Court also affirmed the right to own pornography for private use.
Rated R and X movies gained popularity.
Television included sexual implications.
Despite Congress's attempts to curb this culture, it permeated movies, television, and books.
With the moral implications of abortion, the birth control pill, and divorce, the baby boomers era ended when birth rates fell.
Terms:
Abortion
Birth control
Roe vs. Wade
Gay Liberation: Embracing Identity and Fighting for Rights
The Gay Liberation Front emerged in 1969, fostering a sense of identity and self-acceptance within the gay community.
These groups advocated for equal rights, including lesbians in the Women's Rights Movement, as well as declassification from the prior mental disorder association.
Homosexuality was classified as a normal sexual orientation in civil rights, so many came out of the closet and embraced their orientation.
Term: Gay Liberation Front
1968: The Politics of Upheaval and Division
Eugene McCarthy challenged Johnson's presidency, dividing the nation on the issue of the Vietnam War.
The Tet Offensive, where North Vietnamese troops invaded South Vietnam, exposed American unpreparedness.
Media coverage of casualties and threats led to public distrust of the government and fueled support for Eugene McCarthy.
LBJ's approval rating declined, leading him to withdraw from reelection.
Term:
Tet Offensive
Eugene McCarthy
A Shaken President: Johnson Steps Aside
Supporters of Eugene McCarthy cut their hair to be "clean for Gene."
Robert Kennedy emerged as another Democratic candidate.
Johnson halted bombing in North Vietnam in search of peace and announced he would not seek reelection.
His domestic plan towards the war on poverty would be forgotten by critics of the Vietnam War.
Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated, and assassinations of leading politicians were believed to be apart of a group.
Assassinations and Turmoil: The Democratic Party Fractures
Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated by James Earl Ray on April 4, 1968.
Black ghettos turned to violence, contradicting Martin Luther King Jr.'s ideals of peace.
Three Democratic candidates competed for nomination: Hubert Humphrey, Eugene McCarthy, and Robert Kennedy.
Robert Kennedy's assassination further crippled the Democratic Party.
The Democratic party's abandonment led people to Richard Nixon or George Wallace.
Richard Nixon promised to end the war with honor and restore "law and order."
George Wallace vowed to crack down on violence and rioting.
Radical groups threatened to contaminate Chicago's water system with LSD, leading to mass disorder.
Hubert Humphrey secured the Democratic nomination.
Terms:
1968 election
Richard Nixon
George Wallace
Hubert Humphrey
Assassinations of MLK and Robert Kennedy
Conservative Resurgence: A Shift in Political Ideology
Nixon's policies included:
Criticizing the Supreme Court's rulings that gave rights to radicals.
Appointing judges who would enact a "law and order" policy.
Limiting welfare and promoting employment.
Asserting a doctrine of segregation.
Wallace also opposed welfare and integration.
Nixon won the election, but the popular vote was close.
The conservationism of Nixon and Wallace dominated American politics for the rest of the 20th century.
Terms:
Law and order policy
George Wallace
Nixon and World Politics: Shifting Global Strategies
Vietnamization and the Nixon Doctrine
The Nixon Doctrine shifted the U.S. role in the Third World from military dominance to partnership.
Nations facing communism would receive U.S. assistance but were expected to defend themselves.
Drug use and "fragging" (attacking officers) increased among U.S. soldiers.
Nixon's pursued three steps to end the war:
Vietnamization: Replacing American troops with South Vietnamese soldiers.
Negotiations: Henry Kissinger worked with North Vietnamese to end the conflict.
Escalation Through Bombing: Bombing and airstrikes upon North Vietnam despite the withdrawal of American troops.
Terms:
Vietnamization
Fragging
Henry Kissinger
LBJ's War Becomes Nixon's War
The Vietnam War expanded into Cambodia and Indochina, where North Vietnamese forces increased their offensive.
Nixon believed bombing North Vietnamese all he could would bring about the cause for peace and negotiation.
America's Longest War Ends
Henry Kissinger's peace plan included:
US withdrawal of troops.
POW exchange.
Allowance of North Vietnamese troops in South Vietnam.
The South Vietnam rejected the cease-fire agreement, increasing escalations when North Vietnam wanted greater accommodations and Nixon bombed Vietnam again.
The war was reigned a year letter, proving the treaty to be insufficient because North and South Vietnam still pushed for advantage.
The Vietnamization of American forces was complete.
War veterans faced difficulty returning to America; they were shunned by society and thought of them as disturbed and dangerous.
America wanted to forget the atrocities committed in the war.
Terms:
POW
Détente: Easing Tensions with Communist Powers
The United States accepted the People's Republic of China to end isolation and to stop Soviet expansion in Asia through trade.
Nixon recognized the People's Republic of China and promoted trade, technological cooperation, and nuclear arms limitation with the Soviets.
SALT I was enacted to:
Limit missile systems.
Freeze nuclear weapons for five years.
Commit both sides to equality besides nuclear superiority.
Terms:
Détente
SALT I
People's Republic of China
Soviet Union
Shuttle Diplomacy and Global Realignment
Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Arab states refused to recognize Israel.
Palestinians, through the PLO Palestinian Liberation Organization, demanded Israel's destruction.
U.S. aid enabled Israel to counterattack.
Arab states cut oil supplies to the U.S. and its allies, leading to inflation.
Kissinger pursued "shuttle diplomacy" to:
Achieve a cease-fire.
Have Israel relinquish Arab territory.
End the oil embargo.
The Nixon administration supported antidemocratic nations (Argentina, Brazil, Nigeria, South Korea, and Portuguese in Angola) against the Soviet Union, which proved America's commitment to the ideal of Containment.
The U.S. cut off Chile after the election of a communist leader but restored support after a dictatorship took over.
Terms: Palestinian Liberation Organization shuttle diplomacy
Domestic Problems and Divisions: Navigating Challenges at Home
Richard Nixon: The Enigmatic Figure
Richard Nixon was a very shadowy person who never revealed his true self to the public.
As a politician, Nixon was intelligent and controlled his every move.
Nixon's true self was insecure, paranoid, and suspicious of enemies lurking around every corner.
The Nixon Presidency: Achievements and Initiatives
America celebrated the moon landing.
President Nixon enacted:
Wage and price controls.
Affirmative action policies.
Voting rights for 18 year olds.
Environmental concerns led to:
Laws limiting pesticide use.
Protection for endangered species and marine mammals.
Safeguarding of coastal islands.
Control of strip-mining.
The first Earth Day was celebrated on April 22, 1970.
Nixon proposed a minimum income for all Americans to combat welfare, which was rejected by both conservatives and liberals.
Terms:
Earth Day
Space race
A Troubled Economy: Stagflation Takes Hold
Rising inflation prompted Nixon to cut spending and raise taxes, resulting in a recession.
Critics labeled this "stagflation": inflation combined with stagnation (slow economic growth and rising unemployment).
Nixon struggled to address the economic problem throughout his presidency.
Term: Stagflation
Law and Order: Political Maneuvering and Abuse of Power
Nixon opposed court-ordered busing and took a stand against criminals, drug users, and radicals.
He authorized illegal investigations and used the government to advance his political interests.
The Huston Plan, which involved infiltrating and gathering evidence, was implemented despite opposition from FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover.
The Pentagon Papers were leaked to the media, leading Nixon to challenge their publication.
The Supreme Court ruled in favor of publishing the papers, citing the First Amendment.
Term: The Pentagon Papers
The Southern Strategy: Appealing to Conservative Voters
Nixon sought to win over the South by trying to re-segregate schools and reverse the civil rights policies of the Warren Court, as well as appointing four new justices.
Vice President Spiro T. Agnew verbally attacked the Democratic Party and other aspects of the government during the 1970 midterm election.
Terms:
Spiro T. Agnew
Southern Strategy
The Crisis of the Presidency: Watergate and Nixon's Downfall
The Election of 1972: A Landslide Victory Overshadowed by Scandal
Nixon appeared to be secure for the 1972 election, with the war seemingly over and increased security of Southern support.
George McGovern's campaign faltered, with his policy demonstrating income redistribution, immediate Vietnam withdrawal, billion defense cut, and pardons for people who avoided the draft.
The CREEP (Committee to Re-Elect the President) organization used dirty tricks to undermine the Democratic Party.
The Watergate scandal began when CREEP members were caught attempting to install bugs in the Watergate complex.
Nixon won the election by a large margin, but voter turnout declined.
Terms:
Election of 1972
George McGovern
CREEP
The Watergate Upheaval: Unraveling the Truth
Federal judge John Sirica convinced James McCord of CREEP to confess to the Watergate scandal.
The media uncovered more details, drawing closer to the President.
The bombshell came when a presidential aide revealed the existence of bugs in the Oval Office.
Nixon's refusal to release the tapes and his attempts to dismiss those investigating him led to resignations from his cabinet and a decline in his approval rating.
Term: Watergate Scandal
A President Disgraced: Resignation and Revelation
After a subpoena, Nixon released censored versions of the tapes, excluding key evidence.
Impeachment proceedings began.
Nixon resigned and released the tapes, revealing the Watergate scandal.
Term: Watergate Scandal