The Goryeo Military Regime and the Mongol Invasions

Political Instability and the Struggle for Power in the Goryeo Military Regime

The military regime of Goryeo was characterized by a profound lack of stability, primarily driven by intense internal rivalries among the ruling generals. This era was marked by frequent and violent shifts in leadership, as high-ranking military officials routinely assassinated one another in a relentless quest for dominance. A pivotal moment in this cycle of violence occurred in $1179$ with the assassination of Jeong Jung-bu. Because there was no clearly defined or established system for succession, authority was never secure, and power typically changed hands every few years through coups and bloodshed.

The Rise and Governance of the Choi Chung-heon Dictatorship ($1196$-$1219$)

The period of chronic instability was brought to an end by the emergence of Choi Chung-heon, who governed from $1196$ to $1219$. He succeeded in establishing a hereditary military dictatorship that provided a more durable, albeit authoritarian, structure for the state. To secure his position, Choi Chung-heon took drastic measures to control the monarchy, which included the deposition of two kings and the installation of four new monarchs who would be subservient to his will. Furthermore, he systematically eliminated his military rivals to consolidate power within his own family.

To institutionalize his rule and oversee the administration of the state, Choi Chung-heon established the Gyojeongdogam, also known as the Council of Reformers or Council of Reforms. This body served as the supreme organ of government through which the military dictator could supervise state affairs and maintain absolute control over the country's political life.

The Emergence of the Mongol Threat and Early Conflict

The Mongols, who emerged as nomadic pastoralists from the expansive steppes of Central Asia, began to expand their influence with a specific focus on the agricultural wealth of the Jin, Song, and Goryeo civilizations. The first formal contact between Goryeo and the Mongols occurred in $1221$, when Goryeo forces cooperated with the Mongols to defeat Khitan refugees. However, this initial cooperation quickly soured as the Mongols began to demand an onerous annual tribute from Goryeo. The refusal of Goryeo to meet these demands created significant diplomatic and military tensions.

Relations reached a breaking point in $1225$ following the assassination of a Mongol envoy. This event served as a catalyst for direct conflict, leading to the first full-scale Mongol invasion of Goryeo in $1231$. This marked the beginning of a prolonged period of warfare and resistance that would eventually transform the Goryeo state.

The Collapse of the Military Regime and the Peace Process

Over time, a growing desire for peace began to take root among the Goryeo king and the civilian officials, who were exhausted by the continuous conflict with the Mongols. This internal pressure led the civil elites to conspire with certain factions of the military to bring about the end of the Ch'oe family's rule. The turning point arrived in $1258$ when the dictator Ch'oe Ui was assassinated, an event that effectively allowed power to return to the Korean monarch.

Following the fall of the military regime, the Goryeo government moved toward reconciliation with the Mongol Empire. In $1259$, Crown Prince Wonjong was dispatched to the Mongols to negotiate peace terms. The period of official resistance finally concluded in $1270$ when the capital was transferred back to Kaesong. This move signaled the end of the military's independent stance and the beginning of a new era of relations with the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty.

Social Consequences, Land Consolidation, and the Rise of New Elites

The prolonged instability and the demands of the military regime had devastating effects on the Goryeo peasantry. Weighed down by heavy taxes, labor duties, and other social burdens, many farmers were forced to abandon their lands, becoming vagabonds. These displaced individuals were often captured and reduced to slavery by the Goryeo elite, who utilized them as laborers on massive private estates. This process led to the growth of enormous latifundia and a sharp concentration of wealth in the hands of a small number of aristocratic families.

The Yuan Dynasty began to favor these wealthy, land-owning aristocrats, viewing them as more reliable partners and collaborators than the Goryeo king himself. Consequently, a new class of pro-Yuan elites emerged as the dominant force in society. This group included several distinct sub-sections: interpreters who were fluent in the Mongolian language, military officers who served directly under the Yuan Dynasty, and tribute agents tasked with collecting and managing the levies required by the Mongols. These families accumulated vast territories and hundreds of slaves, effectively monopolizing wealth and power while severely weakening the traditional Goryeo bureaucracy.