College Level Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards

CHAPTER 1: CELL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

  • Cell Membrane: Uses the fluid mosaic model. Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins (integral and peripheral), and carbohydrates.

  • Transport: Includes passive (simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active (requires ATP, e.g., Na-K pump).

  • Organelles:     * Nucleus: Contains DNA; site of RNA transcription.     * Mitochondria: Energy production (ATP).     * Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough (protein translation) and Smooth (lipid making).     * Golgi Apparatus: Sorts and modifies proteins.     * Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

  • Genetics: DNA pairs A-T and C-G. Replication creates identical DNA strands. Transcription creates mRNA; Translation in ribosomes uses mRNA and tRNA to build proteins.

Key Terms for Chapter:

  • Cell Membrane: Fluid mosaic model, phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, integral proteins, peripheral proteins, carbohydrates.

  • Transport: Passive transport (simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active transport (requires ATP, e.g., Na-K pump).

  • Organelles:
      - Nucleus: Contains DNA, RNA transcription site.
      - Mitochondria: ATP production, energy metabolism.
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough (protein translation), Smooth (lipid synthesis).
      - Golgi Apparatus: Protein sorting and modification.
      - Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

  • Genetics: DNA base pairing (A-T, C-G), replication, transcription into mRNA, translation using ribosomes and tRNA.

CHAPTER 2: BODY TISSUES

  • Organization: More than 200 cell types. Junctions include Tight (occluding), Adherent (desmosomes), and Gap (direct exchange).

  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lacks blood supply (avascular). Classified by shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and layers (simple, stratified, pseudostratified).

  • Connective Tissue: Derived from mesoderm. Components include fibers (collagen, elastin, reticular), ground substance, and cells (adipocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages).

  • Muscle Tissue: Contractile cells (myocytes).     * Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, multinucleated.     * Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, single nucleus.     * Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, linked by intercalated discs.

  • Nerve Tissue: CNS (Brain/Spinal Cord) and PNS. Contains neurons (conductive) and neuroglia (protective).

Key Terms:

  • Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, avascular, shape classifications (squamous, cuboidal, columnar), layer classifications (simple, stratified, pseudostratified).

  • Connective Tissue: Derived from mesoderm, components include fibers (collagen, elastin, reticular), ground substance, cells (adipocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages).

  • Muscle Tissue: Contractile cells (myocytes).   - Skeletal: Voluntary, striated, multinucleated.   - Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, single nucleus.   - Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, linked by intercalated discs.

  • Nerve Tissue: CNS (Central Nervous System) and PNS (Peripheral Nervous System), contains neurons (conductive) and neuroglia (protective).

CHAPTER 3: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

  • Epidermis: Outermost, avascular layer. Layers (deep to superficial): Stratum basale, Spinosum, Granulosum, Lucidum (thick skin only), and Corneum.

  • Dermis: Vascularized, contains accessory structures. Composed of papillary and thicker reticular layers.

  • Pigmentation: Melanin (produced by melanocytes), carotene, and hemoglobin.

  • Structures: Hair (roots in follicles), Nails (keratinized plates), Sebaceous glands (oil/sebum), and Sweat glands (eccrine for cooling; apocrine for scent).

Functions:

  • Protection: Acts as a barrier against pathogens and mechanical injury.

  • Regulation: Plays a role in temperature regulation and fluid balance.

  • Sensation: Contains receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature, providing sensory input.

CHAPTER 4: SKELETAL SYSTEM

  • Bone Types: Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.

  • Anatomy: Long bones have a diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses (ends). Contains compact and spongy (cancellous) bone.

  • Bone Cells: Osteoblasts (form bone), Osteocytes (maintain bone), Osteoclasts (break down bone).

  • Skeleton Divisions:     * Axial: 80 bones (skull, vertebral column, ribcage).     * Appendicular: 126 bones (limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles).

Joints:

  • Types of joints include:

    • Synovial (freely movable; knee, elbow)

    • Fibrous (immovable; skull)

    • Cartilaginous (slightly movable; intervertebral discs)

Muscle Tissue:

  • Types of muscle include:

    • Skeletal (voluntary, striated)

    • Cardiac (involuntary, striated)

    • Smooth (involuntary, non-striated)

Physiology: The study of how body structures function, including organ systems and homeostasis.

CHAPTER 5: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

  • Contraction: Interaction of actin and myosin. Requires calcium ions to bind to troponin-tropomyosin.

  • Neuromuscular Junction: Motor neurons release acetylcholine to trigger muscle fiber depolarization.

  • Key Muscles: Diaphragm (primary breathing muscle), Gluteus maximus (extension), Sternocleidomastoid (head movement).

The muscular system has several key functions:

  • Movement: Muscles contract to facilitate body movements, enabling locomotion and various physical activities.

  • Posture: Maintains body position and stabilizes joints to hold the body upright.

  • Heat Production: Muscle contractions generate heat, helping to maintain body temperature.

  • Support: Provides structural support to the skeleton and aids in the movement of body parts.

Protection: Muscles also play a crucial role in protecting vital organs and soft tissues from injury during movement and external impacts.

CHAPTER 6: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

  • Components: Brain (Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Brainstem, Cerebellum) and Spinal Cord.

  • Action Potential: Rapid depolarization (inward sodium) and repolarization (outward potassium). All-or-none response.

  • Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Produced by the choroid plexus; cushions the CNS.

The central nervous system (CNS) is responsible for various critical functions, including:

  • Processing and integrating sensory information from the body and environment.

  • Coordinating voluntary and involuntary responses to stimuli.

  • Maintaining homeostasis by regulating bodily functions.

  • Controlling higher cognitive functions, such as thinking, memory, and decision-making.

  • Facilitating communication between different parts of the body through neural pathways.

CHAPTER 7: PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

  • Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs (e.g., CN I Olfactory, CN II Optic, CN X Vagus).

  • Autonomic Nervous System:     * Sympathetic: "Fight or Flight."     * Parasympathetic: "Rest and Digest."

  • Senses: Olfaction (smell), Gustation (taste), Audition (hearing), Equilibrium (balance), and Vision.

  • The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to limbs and organs, serving as a communication relay.

  • It facilitates voluntary and involuntary motor functions by transmitting signals between the brain and body.

  • It includes cranial nerves and spinal nerves that carry sensory information from the body to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to the body.

  • The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system (controls voluntary movements) and the autonomic nervous system (controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate).

CHAPTER 8: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

  • Pituitary Gland: Regulates other glands. Anterior (GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL); Posterior (stores ADH, Oxytocin).

  • Thyroid: Regulates metabolic rate (T3, T4) and calcium (Calcitonin).

  • Pancreas: Regulates blood glucose via Insulin (lowers) and Glucagon (raises).

The endocrine system plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions through the release of hormones into the bloodstream. Key functions include:

  • Regulation of Metabolism: Hormones such as thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) control the metabolic rate and how the body uses energy.

  • Growth and Development: Hormones like growth hormone stimulate growth and development of tissues and organs.

  • Homeostasis: The endocrine system helps maintain internal balance (homeostasis) by regulating levels of fluids, electrolytes, and energy substrates.

  • Response to Stress: Hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol are involved in the body’s response to stress and emergencies.

  • Reproductive Functions: Hormones regulate sexual development, reproductive cycles, and fertility through the actions of glands like the pituitary, ovaries, and testes.

  • Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels: The pancreas releases insulin and glucagon to maintain appropriate levels of glucose in the blood.

The primary structures of the endocrine system include:

  • Pituitary Gland: Often referred to as the master gland, it regulates other endocrine glands and secretes hormones like growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and others.

  • Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolic rate through hormones such as T3 and T4, and controls calcium levels with calcitonin.

  • Adrenal Glands: Located on top of the kidneys, they produce hormones like adrenaline and cortisol that are involved in stress response.

  • Pancreas: Plays a critical role in glucose metabolism, secreting insulin (lowers blood sugar) and glucagon (raises blood sugar).

  • Gonads: Ovaries and testes that produce sex hormones (estrogen, testosterone) influencing reproductive functions.

  • Pineal Gland: Produces melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.

  • Thymus: Plays a role in immune function by producing thymosin, important for T-cell development.

CHAPTER 9 & 10: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

  • Heart Anatomy: Four chambers (RA, RV, LA, LV). Blood flows: Body → R Atrium → R Ventricle → Lungs → L Atrium → L Ventricle → Body.

  • Conduction: SA Node (pacemaker) → AV Node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers.

  • Blood: Composed of Plasma (55%) and Formed Elements (RBCs, WBCs, Platelets). Hematocrit is the volume of RBCs.

  • Functions:

The cardiovascular system performs several essential functions, including:

  • Transport of Blood:   - Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs.   - Transports carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products from cells to excretory organs.

  • Distribution of Hormones:   - Carries hormones from endocrine glands to target organs, regulating various body functions.

  • Regulation of Body Temperature:   - Helps maintain body temperature by adjusting the flow of blood to the skin's surface.

  • Protection:   - White blood cells and antibodies in the blood play a role in the immune response against pathogens.
      - Blood clotting mechanisms protect against excessive bleeding.

  • Homeostasis:   - Maintains stable internal conditions such as pH and electrolyte balance.

  • Primary Structrures:

  • The primary structures of the cardiovascular system include:

    • Heart: The central organ of the cardiovascular system, composed of four chambers (right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle) that pump blood throughout the body.

    • Blood Vessels:
        - Arteries: Carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to the tissues.
        - Veins: Return oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
        - Capillaries: Microscopic vessels where the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste occurs between blood and tissues.

    • Blood: Composed of plasma (liquid component) and formed elements (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets) that transport oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
         These structures work together to ensure efficient circulation and support the body's metabolic needs.CHAPTER 11 & 12: IMMUNE & RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

  • Immune: Innate (nonspecific, e.g., skin, phagocytes) and Adaptive (specific, T cells and B cells making antibodies).

  • Respiratory: Conducting zone (air passage) and Respiratory zone (gas exchange in alveoli via simple diffusion). CO2 levels are the primary control for breathing.

CHAPTER 13 & 14: DIGESTIVE & METABOLISM

  • GI Tract: Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine (primary absorption) → Large Intestine (water recovery).

  • Cellular Respiration: Glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs Cycle (mitochondria), and Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria) produce ATP.

  • Metabolism: Anabolic (building up) and Catabolic (breaking down) pathways are crucial for energy balance and nutrient utilization.

  • Nutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats play significant roles in energy provision and metabolic processes.

  • Enzyme Action: Catalysts that lower activation energy and speed up chemical reactions essential for digestion and metabolism.

  • The digestive system serves several key functions that are essential for the body's overall health and energy balance:

    • Gastrointestinal Tract:
        - Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine (primary absorption) → Large Intestine (water recovery).

    • Cellular Respiration:
        - Processes such as glycolysis (cytoplasm), Krebs Cycle (mitochondria), and Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria) produce ATP, which is vital for cellular energy.

    • Metabolism:
        - Includes anabolic pathways (building up molecules) and catabolic pathways (breaking down molecules) that are crucial for energy balance and nutrient utilization.

    • Nutrients:
        - Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats play significant roles in energy provision and metabolic processes.

    • Enzyme Action:
        - Enzymes serve as catalysts that lower activation energy and speed up chemical reactions, which is essential for digestion and metabolism.CHAPTER 15 & 16: URINARY, FLUIDS & ELECTROLYTES

  • Nephron Function: Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and secretion.

  • Acid-Base: Lungs regulate CO2 (carbonic acid); Kidneys regulate bicarbonate. Normal pH: 7.35−7.457.35 - 7.45.

  • The main structures of the digestive system include:

    • Mouth: The entry point for food, where mechanical digestion begins with chewing and chemical digestion starts with saliva.

    • Pharynx: A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the esophagus, playing a role in swallowing.

    • Esophagus: A tube that transports food from the pharynx to the stomach through peristaltic movements.

    • Stomach: A muscular sac that churns food and mixes it with gastric juices, initiating protein digestion.

    • Small Intestine: Composed of three parts (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), it is the primary site for nutrient absorption.

    • Large Intestine: Absorbs water and electrolytes, transforming liquid waste into solid feces.

    • Rectum: The final section of the large intestine, serving as a storage area for feces.

    • Anus: The opening through which feces is expelled from the body.

CHAPTER 17, 18 & 19: REPRODUCTION & DEVELOPMENT

  • Male: Spermatogenesis occurs in seminiferous tubules; testosterone by Leydig cells.

  • Female: Oogenesis in ovaries. Cycle phases: Menses, Proliferative (Estrogen), Secretory (Progesterone).

  • Development: Zygote → Morula → Blastocyst → Embryo (weeks 3-8) → Fetus (week 9 to birth).

  • Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes.

  • Placenta develops for nutrient exchange during pregnancy.

  • Trimester breakdown: First trimester (weeks 1-12), Second trimester (weeks 13-26), Third trimester (weeks 27-40).

  • Changes in maternal physiology: Increased blood volume, hormonal shifts, and changes in metabolism to support fetal development.

Male Reproductive System:

  • Testes: Produce sperm (spermatogenesis) and testosterone by Leydig cells.

  • Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm.

  • Vas Deferens: Transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

  • Seminal Vesicles: Produce seminal fluid that nourishes and helps transport sperm.

  • Prostate Gland: Adds fluid to semen and helps in sperm motility.

  • Penis: External organ for delivering sperm during sexual intercourse.

Female Reproductive System:

  • Ovaries: Produce ova (oogenesis) and hormones like estrogen and progesterone.

  • Fallopian Tubes: Transport eggs from the ovaries to the uterus; site of fertilization.

  • Uterus: Houses and nourishes the developing fetus.

  • Cervix: The lower part of the uterus, opening to the vagina.

  • Vagina: Muscular canal leading from the external genitals to the uterus; serves as the birth canal.