Overview of Motivation Concepts
What is Motivation?
Motivation is defined as "to be moved into action or a change in action."
It involves:
Internal motives (pushed by past experiences).
External goals/incentives (pulled by future expectations).
Three key categories:
Motive.
Goal.
Incentive.
Example: Hunger motivates eating (motive), satisfying hunger is the goal, and food serves as an incentive.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Incentives, Goals, and Needs
Motive: An internal disposition to approach or avoid a situation.
Goal: A mental representation of a valued future outcome a person wants to achieve.
Incentive: An anticipated reward or punishment that influences behavior.
Incentives can be:
Positive: Pull toward action.
Negative: Push away from action.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Purpose of Motivation
Drives behavior toward fulfilling needs, desires, and goals.
Helps maintain homeostasis and survival.
Supports goal-directed behavior and future planning.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Drives & Psychological Needs
Drives: Created by deprivation of necessary substances (e.g., food, water).
Psychological needs: Arise when a person lacks necessary elements in their environment (e.g., social interaction, competence).
Example:
Hunger = physiological drive.
Need for achievement = psychological need.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Effective Forecasting - What is it?
Affective forecasting: Predicting how one will feel after achieving a goal.
People often overestimate how happy or unhappy they will be after an event.
Example: Students misjudge their feelings after receiving test results.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Anticipatory Response Mechanism
Small automatic responses that happen before reaching a goal.
Helps guide a person toward goal achievement.
Example: Thinking about pizza makes you salivate and increases craving.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Cognitive Motivation
Involves mentally visualizing the end goal.
People create a mental plan or script to achieve their goal.
Example: Imagining eating pizza before going to the restaurant.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Emotional Thinking
Emotions act as motivators by pushing or pulling individuals toward behavior.
Example:
Fear motivates escape.
Anger motivates action.
Sadness motivates withdrawal.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Evolutionary Cost
Evolution shaped behaviors to maximize survival & reproduction.
Some past adaptations (e.g., craving high-calorie foods) are less beneficial today.
Example: Evolutionary Mismatch Hypothesis explains obesity struggles.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Anticipation of the Future
Motivation often involves looking ahead and predicting future rewards.
Visualizing future outcomes increases motivation.
Example: Athletes imagining winning a game helps them train harder.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Reinforcement History
Past experiences shape motivation by reinforcing behaviors.
Positive reinforcement increases likelihood of repeating a behavior.
Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant experience to encourage behavior.
Source: Chapter 3 Addictions and Addictive Behaviors
Motivation as Anticipation of the Future
People are motivated by expecting future rewards/punishments.
Closer rewards increase motivation.
Example: Students study more as an exam approaches.
Source: Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Human Nature and Nurture
Evolutionary history (nature) and personal experiences (nurture) shape motivation.
Gene-environment correlation: Genes shape environments we choose, which in turn affects motivation.
Example: Risk-taking individuals seek thrilling experiences.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Gene Environment
Genes influence motivation by shaping behavior and responses.
Environments reinforce or discourage behaviors.
Example: Some people are naturally more social due to genetic traits.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Universal Motives
Shared by all humans regardless of culture.
Examples: Fear, facial expressions, goal setting, sexual attraction, emotions.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Evolutionary Psychology
Explains motivation in terms of survival & reproduction.
Psychological mechanisms evolved to solve adaptation problems.
Example: Fear of snakes helped ancestors avoid danger.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Expression? - Involuntary Behavior?
Some expressions are automatic & universal (e.g., smiling when happy, frowning when sad).
Evolution shaped these responses for survival purposes.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
We are omnivores - What does this mean/benefits?
Humans can eat a variety of foods, increasing survival chances.
Sweet foods provide energy, so they are naturally preferred.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Sweet vs. Sour/Lime?
Humans have an innate preference for sweet foods (high energy) and aversion to bitter foods (potential toxins).
Example: Babies prefer sweet flavors but reject sour/bitter tastes.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Pluhbee? Phubbing
Phubbing (short for “phone snubbing”) refers to the act of ignoring someone in a social setting by focusing on your phone instead.
Connected to social motivation & relationships
People are motivated to interact in-person, but excessive phone use disrupts this.
Related to the evolutionary mismatch hypothesis (humans evolved for face-to-face interaction, but technology changed social behaviors).
Can reduce perceived partner responsiveness (feeling like the other person doesn’t care).
Example: Checking your phone during a conversation makes the other person feel ignored.
Source: Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation – Smartphone Mismatch Slides