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Cognitive Revolution

• The cognitive revolution emerged as a shift in focus toward the mind as a legitimate object of scientific inquiry, reviving interest beyond pure behaviorism (Miller, 2003).
• By $1967$, Ulric Neisser published the first textbook titled Cognitive Psychology, which became a core text in cognitive psychology courses nationwide (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
• No single person started the cognitive revolution, but Noam Chomsky was highly influential in its early days (Figure 1.9).
• Noam Chomsky (born $1928$), an American linguist, criticized the limits of behaviorism and argued that psychology must re-incorporate mental functioning to meaningfully understand behavior (Miller, 2003).
• Chomsky’s critique helped shift psychology away from a sole focus on observable behavior and toward internal mental processes.
• European psychology had been less influenced by behaviorism than American psychology; the cognitive revolution helped reestablish channels of communication between European and American psychologists.
• The era fostered collaboration with other fields such as anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, contributing to an interdisciplinary approach often referred to as the cognitive sciences, whose influence remains prominent in contemporary psychology (Miller, 2003).
• Visual/educational note: Figure 1.9 commemorates Noam Chomsky with a mural in Philadelphia (2010), illustrating his pivotal role in the movement.

Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

• Culture shapes individuals, groups, and society; a key issue is that some populations have been over-studied, leading to the erroneous generalization of findings to other groups.
• WEIRD populations are often overrepresented in research, and findings from these groups have been inappropriately generalized to non-WEIRD populations.
• $ext{WEIRD} = ext{Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic}$
• Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010) highlighted differences between WEIRD populations and less industrialized, less urban, non-Western societies in areas such as perception, cooperation, and moral reasoning.
• Multicultural psychology emphasizes theories and research with diverse populations, typically within one country, whereas cross-cultural psychology compares populations across countries (e.g., United States vs China).
• Historical milestones:
  • $1920$: Francis Cecil Sumner became the first African American to earn a PhD in psychology in the United States; he established a psychology degree program at Howard University, leading to a new generation of African American psychologists (Black, Spence, & Omari, 2004).
  • Early work by diverse psychologists challenged traditional intelligence testing and promoted innovative educational methods for children.
  • $1940$: George I. Sanchez, a Mexican American psychologist, taught at the University of Texas at Austin and challenged segregated education and language/cultural barriers in testing (Romo, 1986).
  • $1962$: Martha Bernal, the first Latina to earn a doctoral degree in psychology, conducted much of her research with Mexican American children (Benjamin, Henry, & McMahon, 2005).
  • $1933$: Inez Beverly Prosser, the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology (University of Cincinnati) (Benjamin, Henry, & McMahon, 2005).
  • $1924$: Mary Cover Jones conducted a study that unconditioned fear in Little Peter, seen as a sequel to Watson’s Little Albert study (Jones, 1924).
  • Mamie Phipps Clark and Kenneth Clark conducted influential doll-preference studies with African American children, contributing to the Brown v. Board of Education desegregation decision; the Clarks later opened Harlem’s first child guidance center (American Psychological Association, 2019).
• Additional note: A podcast exists describing the Clarks’ research and impact on the Supreme Court decision (non-specified details in the transcript).

Women In Psychology

• Women have contributed to psychology since its inception, though often under-recognized.
• $1894$: Margaret Floy Washburn became the first woman to receive a doctoral degree in psychology; she authored The Animal Mind: A Textbook of Comparative Psychology, a standard text for over two decades.
• $1890s$: Mary Whiton Calkins completed all PhD requirements, but Harvard University refused to confer the degree due to her gender. Calkins studied memory (primacy and recency; Madigan & O'Hara, 1992) and wrote about how structuralism and functionalism both framed self-psychology (Calkins, 1906).
• Mary Cover Jones studied conditioned fear, effecting a study considered a sequel to John B. Watson’s Little Albert work by unconditioning fear in Little Peter (Jones, 1924).
• Ethnic minority women contributing to psychology include:
  • Martha Bernal: first Latina to earn a doctoral degree in psychology (1962); researched with Mexican American children.
  • Inez Beverly Prosser: first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology (1933) at the University of Cincinnati.
  • These women contributed to education-focused psychology and challenged prevalent biases in testing and education (Benjamin, Henry, & McMahon, 2005).

Contemporary Psychology

• Contemporary psychology is shaped by multiple historical perspectives and is reflected in the American Psychological Association (APA).
• APA: largest professional organization of psychologists in the United States; mission is to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the betterment of people.
• Structure and breadth:
  • There are $54$ divisions representing diverse specialties (e.g., Religion and Spirituality, Exercise and Sport Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, Comparative Psychology).
  • Membership spans students to doctoral-level psychologists, across educational settings, criminal justice, hospitals, armed forces, and industry (APA, 2014).
• G. Stanley Hall:
  • First president of the APA.
  • Before his PhD, he was an adjunct instructor at Wilberforce University (an HBCU) while teaching at Antioch College.
  • He studied under William James and became the first president of Clark University in Massachusetts when it was founded (Pickren & Rutherford, 2010).
• Association for Psychological Science (APS):
  • Founded in $1988$ to advance the scientific orientation of psychology, arising from disagreements between the scientific and clinical branches within the APA.
  • APS publishes five research journals and engages in education and advocacy with funding agencies; a significant portion of its members are international, though the majority are in the United States.
• Other organizations dedicated to specific communities include:
  • National Latina/o Psychological Association (NLPA)
  • Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA)
  • Association of Black Psychologists (ABPsi)
  • Society of Indian Psychologists (SIP)
• Note: These groups focus on networking, collaboration, and studying psychological and social issues within their communities.
• The section promises an overview of the major subdivisions within psychology today in the order they are introduced in the textbook, as a guide rather than an exhaustive listing of all subfields.

Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

• Biopsychology examines how biology influences behavior, focusing on how the structure and function of the nervous system relate to behavior (Figure 1.10).

• Interdisciplinary approach: biological psychologists often combine methods from psychology and physiology to study the nervous system; this interdisciplinary approach is part of neuroscience (Carlson, 2013).

• Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) are core components:

  • CNS: brain and spinal cord
  • PNS: nerves

• Core research domains in biological psychology include, but are not limited to:

  • Sensory and motor systems
  • Sleep
  • Drug use and abuse
  • Ingestive behavior
  • Reproductive behavior
  • Neurodevelopment
  • Plasticity of the nervous system
  • Biological correlates of psychological disorders

• The field is highly interdisciplinary, drawing from biologists, medical professionals, physiologists, and chemists.

• Neuroscience is the overarching field that encompasses biological psychology as a component.

• Evolutionary psychology seeks to uncover the ultimate (evolutionary) biological causes of behavior, particularly where genetics play a role in shaping behavior. To the extent that a behavior is influenced by heredity, it can be studied from an evolutionary perspective.

• Note: The transcript cuts off mid-sentence after introducing evolutionary psychology, indicating that the full discussion is not present in the provided content.

• Connections and implications across sections:

  • The cognitive revolution laid groundwork for interdisciplinary study, which modern psychology continues to emphasize through neuroscience and cross-cultural research.
  • Understanding WEIRD bias informs ethical research practices and the generalizability of findings to diverse populations.
  • Historical contributions of women and minority scientists illustrate the importance of inclusive research and representation in shaping psychological science and practice.
  • The APA and APS reflect the professional structure of psychology, guiding standards, ethics, and opportunities for specialization in contemporary practice.

• Formulas and key terms to remember:

  • $ext{WEIRD} = ext{Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic}$
  • Figure references:
  • Figure 1.9: Noam Chomsky’s influence on the cognitive revolution (mural in 2010, Philadelphia).
  • Figure 1.10: CNS and PNS organization in biopsychology.

• Key dates to memorize:

  • $1928$: Noam Chomsky born
  • $1967$: Neisser’s Cognitive Psychology publication
  • $1988$: APS founded
  • $1894$: Washburn, first woman with PhD in psychology
  • $1890s$: Calkins’ near-PhD and contributions
  • $1920$: Sumner, first African American PhD in psychology
  • $1933$: Inez Beverly Prosser, first African American woman PhD in psychology
  • $1962$: Martha Bernal, first Latina PhD in psychology
  • $1924$: Jones, Little Peter study
  • $2010/2019$: Chomsky mural and Clarks’ doll-study legacy highlighted in APA materials