Author: Akshaya Periasamy, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology
Year: 2020
Definition of Memory
Memory: The process by which people encode, store, and retrieve information.
Basic Processes of Memory
Encoding:
The process by which information is initially recorded in a usable form for memory.
Storage:
The maintenance of saved information within the memory system.
Retrieval:
The process of recovering stored information and bringing it into awareness for use.
Systems of Memory Storehouse
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1986) – Information Processing Model
Sensory Memory: Briefly holds information recorded by the sensory systems.
Short-Term Memory: Holds information for approximately 15-25 seconds.
Long-Term Memory: Information can be retained permanently, depending on rehearsal.
Sensory Memory
Definition: Initial momentary storage of information lasting only an instant.
Characteristics:
Recorded as raw, non-meaningful stimuli.
Most information is lost unless attended to, leading to further processing in short-term memory.
Types of Sensory Memory:
Iconic Memory: Visual information lasting about 1 second.
Echoic Memory: Auditory information lasting 5-10 seconds.
Sperling Experiment (1960)
Conducted by George Sperling to understand sensory memory.
Method: Brief exposure of a series of letters.
Findings:
Most people could recall 4-5 letters after a brief presentation.
Introduction of tones after exposure indicated that the full array was stored in sensory memory, with recall accuracy dependent on time delay between exposure and tone.
Short-Term Memory
Holds information for 15-25 seconds.
Limited storage capacity (~7 ± 2 items).
To enhance short-term memory:
Chunking: Grouping stimuli into meaningful units.
Rehearsal: Active repetition of information.
Mnemonics: Techniques for organizing material to improve retention.
Long-Term Memory
Characterized as relatively permanent with unlimited storage capacity.
Divided into modules:
Declarative Memory: Factual information (e.g., names, dates).
Procedural Memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike).
Semantic Memory: General knowledge about the world.
Episodic Memory: Biographical details and personal experiences.
Retrieval and Reconstruction
Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help in recalling information (e.g., words, emotions).
Context and State Dependent Memories:
Context Dependent Memory: Easier recall in similar environments.
State Dependent Memory: Recall influenced by the individual's physiological and psychological state.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Difficulty retrieving known information.
Flashbulb Memory: Highly detailed memories of important events.
Levels of Processing Theory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
Deeper processing leads to better memory retention.
Types of processing:
Structural Level: Shallow, sensory features.
Phonetic Level: Intermediate, labeling and categorizing.
Semantic Level: Deepest, meaning and context relationships.
Forgetting
Defined as loss of encoded information.
Key theories:
Encoding Failure: Lack of attention leads to no encoding.
Decay Theory: Information fades over time due to nonuse.
Interference Theory: Old or new information disrupts recall.