China 1839-1997 Notes

China 1839-1997

Chapter 1: China 1839-60

  • In 1839, China was an antique empire ruled by the Manchu dynasty, politically and socially conservative, and considered itself superior to all other nations.
  • Within 30 years, Western powers forced China to surrender much of its independence and key parts of its territory.
  • Key Dates:
    • 2200s BC: Beginning of China's recorded history.
    • 551-479 BC: Life of Confucius.
    • 1644: Beginning of Manchu rule of China.
    • 1794: McCartney's mission to China.
    • 1839-42: First Opium War.
    • 1841: Convention of Ch'uan-pi.
    • 1842: Treaty of Nanjing.
    • 1850: Beginning of Taiping Rebellion.
    • 1856-60: Second Opium War.
    • 1860: Treaty of Tianjin.

The Nature of Manchu Rule

  • Recorded history in China dates from around 2200 BC, measured by reference to the fifteen imperial dynasties.
  • In 1839, the emperor was a member of the Manchu house, the last dynasty before the 1911 revolution.
  • The Manchus came from Manchuria, a state outside China; their rule was a foreign imposition.
  • Han Chinese never lost the sense of being subject to alien rulers, leading to anti-Manchu agitation with the rise of Chinese nationalism.
  • Cutting off pigtails was a symbolic act against the traditional Manchu hairstyle.
  • The emperor was the principal ruler, entitled to complete obedience.
  • The imperial title was hereditary and claimed an absolute authority.
  • Confucianism:
    • Ideas drawn from the teachings of Confucius (551-479 BC).
    • Not a religion, but a set of ideas emphasizing ordered life and social harmony.
    • Society structured with four essential rules:
      • Acceptance of the status quo.
      • Obedience of children to parents.
      • Obedience of wives to husbands.
      • Obedience of the people to the emperor and his officials.
    • The emperor's right to rule was originally established by force, but Confucianism provided a justification by asserting that obedience to authority was essential to a virtuous, harmonious society.
    • Challengers were treated as social outcasts and dealt with severely.
    • China gained a reputation for mercilessly dealing with internal rebellions; rebels were publicly executed.

The Imperial Court

  • The emperor, referred to as 'His Celestial Highness,' resided in the Forbidden City in Beijing.
  • Government offices and courtiers were situated in the Forbidden City.
  • The people had no say in government; ideas such as democracy, parliamentary, and representative government were unknown.
  • Politics took place within the court, involving rival individuals and groups competing for the emperor's attention and favor.
  • Court life was heavily regulated and formal, with eunuchs managing the court and concubines in a court harem.

The Mandarins

  • The predominance of Confucianism secured the position of the mandarins, scholars trained in Confucian learning who went through rigid examinations.
  • They joined an exclusive class of officials who ran China under the emperor's authority.
  • As government officials and local governors, they were indispensable to imperial rule and became a social and political elite.
  • Their bureaucratic control was paralleled by the rule of the Communist Party in the 20th century.

The Manchu View of China's Place in the World

  • The Chinese word for China is zhongguozhongguo, meaning 'the middle kingdom' or 'the center of the world.'
  • China regarded itself as a society superior to all others and retained a sense of its own uniqueness.
  • It believed it was a self-sufficient culture that needed nothing from foreign nations.
  • The Chinese term for people of other nations was 'barbarians'.
  • Chinese map-makers put China in the center, with the rest of the world circling it.
  • The Chinese were slow to develop a concept of progress because the rulers did not see a need to introduce reform.
  • China maintained an elaborate tribute system, regarding any trade as being made up of gifts from China's inferiors.
  • In Sino-British relations, British delegations approaching the emperor with trading proposals were turned down.
  • In 1794, King George III's representative, Lord McCartney, refused to kowtowkowtow, causing diplomatic embarrassment; Emperor Qianlong said China valued nothing from Britain.

Society under the Manchus

  • Confucianism became integral to Chinese culture; placing society before the individual and obeying authority continue to color Chinese thinking.
Status of Women in Imperial China
  • Imperial China was a patriarchal system; Confucianism taught that wives should obey their husbands.
  • Women were discriminated against and treated very much as subordinates.
  • Females were denied formal education since their essential role was domestic.
  • Wen Qimei (seventh daughter) illustrates the depersonalized way female children were classified.
  • At age fourteen, Mao was informed by his father that a betrothal had been arranged for him
  • Forced marriages were customary in imperial China; love and compatibility were not a consideration.
  • The bride's family was calculated on how many children she was likely to produce.
  • Mao rejected this, defying his father and Chinese social convention.
  • Mao witnessed the execution of a young girl for taking a lover, depicting the social oppression of women.
  • Foot-binding was a common practice to hobble women and make them more attractive to husbands.
  • The first reform Mao made as leader was to prohibit foot-binding.

The Imperial Economy

  • In 1839, China had a population of 300 million (95% Han), which doubled by 1900 and doubled again by the end of the 20th century.
Agrarian Problems
  • Overwhelmingly agricultural, with peasants renting land; the relationship between peasant and landowner was essentially one of dependence.
  • Landlords could raise rents prohibitively, and even when buying, peasants were at the mercy of lenders.
  • Hatred of landlords was a potent feature of Chinese society.
  • Food produced varied, determined by local soil and climatic conditions.
  • Chinese peasant family life was simple but things worked as smoothly as they were expected to, the variation of crops produced can be illustrated in Figure 1.1.
  • China's population put pressure on food production, causing famines and rebellions.
  • Peasants lacked equipment, and the basic ploughing pattern hadn't changed in centuries.
  • China's food needs would run ahead of its capacity to meet them until technological advances were adopted.
Trade
  • China's rulers claimed they had no need of trade, but foreign commerce had increased considerably, leading to growth in coastal and river ports.
  • China's exports: furs, tobacco, porcelain, silk, and tea (white tea in high demand in Britain).
  • The issue of opium imports shattered this condescending air of detachment.

The Opium Wars

  • China's belief in its greatness was shaken by enforced contact with the West, beginning with the Opium Wars.
First Opium War 1839-42
  • Open conflict broke out in 1839 when the government rejected British demands to increase opium purchases from British India.
  • War had long- and short-term causes.
Long-term causes
  • Britain's expansion as a free trade power led to its exploitation of China as a market and source of materials.
  • The East India Company had rapidly expanded the opium trade. In 1767, it had exported 10001000 chests; by 1838, it was exporting 4000040000 chests. (One chest contained an average of 6060 kg of opium).
  • Traders pressured Chinese importers and used illegal means, ignoring Chinese authorities and dealing with corrupt officials and smugglers.
  • Revenue from opium paid for Britain's tea imports from China; any serious disruption would badly affect Britain's balance of payments.
  • China's lack of modernity made it suspicious of European expansionism and unable to adapt to Britain's demanding style.
  • Britain's military strength and China's military weakness made Britain ready for conflict.
  • Stronger nations tend to dominate weaker ones; the relationship between China and Britain in the second quarter of the 19th century was a recipe for conflict.
Short-term causes
  • The Chinese government realized its opium purchase was rapidly draining financial reserves; China was paying out 1818 million in silver.
  • Growing awareness in government circles of the disruptive impact of opium on Chinese society, work habits, family relations and social harmony.
  • The Qing government decided to assert itself in 1839 by ordering the seizure of the opium stocks in Canton/Guangzhou.
  • While opium was illegal, merchants had an impression that legalisation was about to occur, leading them to stockpile supplies.
  • Instead, markets closed and stocks seized.
  • Lin Zexu (1785-1850), imperial commissioner to Canton, fiercely objected to the opium trade and ordered a campaign against it.
  • Lin's anti-opium campaign, March to May 1839:
    • 5000050000 pounds of opium seized by Chinese authorities.
    • 7000070000 opium pipes confiscated.
    • 16001600 Chinese opium addicts arrested.
  • Lin justified his action on moral grounds, asking Queen Victoria by what right did the British enforce a 'poisonous drug' on the Chinese people.
  • The merchant contingent, led by Charles Elliot, appealed to the British government to intervene militarily on their behalf; Viscount Palmerston ordered gunboats to Chinese waters.
  • Palmerston stated that the Queen of Great Britain sent a Naval and Military Force to the Coast of China.
Character of the War
  • The war on land was largely a matter of siege, counter-siege and forcing the Chinese to take shelter in their own areas.
  • Chinese weapons and equipment were no match for the British.
  • British steamships could sail miles inland; British rifles had quick-loading mechanisms and long range.
  • The British captured vital warehouses and river barges, denying the Chinese the ability to pay their soldiers and fund the war effort.
  • In June 1840, a British force arrived by sea to put Canton and other ports and towns under siege.
  • A fleet of 25 steam ships with cannon bombarded coastal forts on China's east coast.
  • In 1842, reinforcements increased Britain's strength; the British were able to seize Shanghai, obliging the Chinese to make peace.
Convention of Ch'uan-pi, January 1841
  • Effort to call a halt to the fighting due to Chinese defeat.
  • China to pay Britain 6$ million in compensation.
  • Canton to be fully open to British trade.
  • Hong Kong island to be ceded to Britain.
  • The Qing government to be permitted to collect taxes from Hong Kong.
  • Britain to withdraw from the islands it had temporarily occupied during the war.
  • Did not become a formal treaty since neither China nor Britain was happy with it.
  • The British insisted they be made into a binding agreement, which was accepted in the Treaty of Nanjing.
Treaty of Nanjing 1842
  • The Qing government was required to pay Britain 21 million in compensation.
  • China agreed to cede Hong Kong island to Britain permanently.
  • Britain was granted special trading rights in China's main ports.
  • British subjects were entitled to purchase property and take up residence in the treaty ports.
  • British residents were exempt from local Chinese law.
  • The government entered into similar agreements with France and the USA; the USA was granted 'most favored nation' status with the Treaty of Wangxia; treaties marked a key stage in the opening of China to influence.
Second Opium War 1856-60
  • Chinese authorities left embittered after the humiliating peace treaties of 1841-2, increasing the likelihood of hostilities.
Causes
  • Britain demanded Chinese ports be open to British traders; China accept that opium imports were legal; British goods be free of import levies; a permanent British embassy be established in Beijing.
  • The Manchu government declined to give a clear response for two years.
  • In October 1856, Canton port police impounded the Arrow, a ship known to have been involved in piracy and opium smuggling.
  • Britain responded by demanding release of the ship and imprisoned crew; Palmerston sanctioned the shelling of Canton; a naval force brought Tianjin under European control.
Treaty of Tianjin, 1858
  • Eleven Chinese ports were to be opened up to foreign trade.
  • Britain, France, Russia and the United States were to be granted the right to set up embassies in Beijing.
  • Foreigners were to be entitled to travel in China without restriction and to engage in trade and religious missionary work.
  • China's principal river, the Yangzi, was to be open to foreign shipping.
  • Foreign and Chinese Christians were to be entitled to worship openly without interference from the Qing authorities.
  • China was required to pay 10$$ million to both Britain and France, and $5$ million to British merchants.
  • The Chinese authorities were to drop all slighting references to the British, such as the word 'barbarian'.
Convention of Beijing 1860

  • Britain and France, sent joint force when joint force to China to enforce treaty stipulations

  • British British force approved by Lord Elgin attacked and burned down the Summer Palace as retaliation for the killing of two British journalists.
    The Chinese, accepted the Convention of Beijing ratified the Tianjin treaty of 1858 and Two added concessions made by the Qing government:

  • The port of Kowloon opposite Hong Kong island was granted to Britain on a permanent basis.

  • The Manchu government was to grant permission to Chinese nationals to emigrate to North America as indentured labourers.

Results of the Opium Wars
  • Western advances in technology gave the European powers a military and economic superiority over China.
  • The revealed Chinese notion of challenged Chinese supremacy and raised doubts about Chinese identity.
  • Manchu regime regarded as incapable of effective resistance to the foreigners; 'unequal treaties' reduced the esteem in which the imperial system had been held.
  • A humiliated China had to accept a huge increase in opium import, and Hong Kong to British control.
  • By the end of the century, there were 50 'treaty ports'; these became European mini-states in which European law took precedence over Chinese law.
  • The West by a series of unequal treaties held China, saw many regions of foreign control, containing international settlements known as 'concessions.'
  • Japan exploited the situation, making increasing demands on China; culminating in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5.
  • A double response emerged among China's population: a dislike of the foreign, as well as being impressed by the economic and military prowess of copying those ways China begin to modernize itself.
  • A significant class of Chinese 'compradors' who became invaluable agents for the foreign businesses, leading to better career opportunities and wages.
  • Became defining moment in China's modern history
  • Deng Xiaoping made constant allusion to the Opium Wars to justify Hong Kong in 1997
The British In Shanghai
  • The British showed remarkable speed in developing control of it into China's major port
  • Land near the Yangzi delta was strengthened and sectioned for trade
  • Consular offices and trading offices were created
  • Import-export value of textiles stood at over £5 million in 1860. Shanghai was attracting a growing source of foreign commercial and financial interests turning into cosmopolitan cities

Rebellions and the Qing Response to Them

  • The Taiping Rebellion (1850-64) was the most destructive in China's history; approximately 50 million people died.
  • It initially began as a movement in Guangdong, and because of harvest failures and heavy taxation led to Taiping Rebellion
  • led by Hong Xiuquan, It embracing of religion.
  • Taiping resorted to the most restrictive methods of control, including torture and beheadings and by the early 1860s, the Taiping army had grown to over half a million.
  • When disorder caused by the rebellion threatened Western interests. similar change of attitude occurred among Westerners in China
  • Organized Manchu army, Zeng Guofan and drawing on foreign merciancies, such as the English commander Charles Gordon, the Manchu forces were able to break attempts by the Taiping to seize Shanghai.
  • the Taiping were finally overcome and Hong's suicide in Nanjing in 1864
Reasons for the Failure of the Rebellion
  • Brutality, dissidents, remained a movement, Britain, and France, and Western Military.
  • Inspired further risings among them were the Nian Rebellion, the Panthay Rebellion (1856-73), The Dungan Rebellion (1862-77).

Chapter 2: The Opening of China to Foreigners 1860-1901

  • Following the Opium Wars more foreigners came to China to exploit the economic/missionary opportunities.
  • The Chinese resented this and began a desire to modernize China.
  • The attempts at reassert its independence lead to war with Japan and further resistance against foreign encroachment
  • Key Dates: Cixi (1861) became the Empress Dowager, Tianjin Massacre (1870), Sino-Japanese War (1894-5), Western 'scramble for concessions' (1897-99), Boxer Rebellion (1898-1900), Boxer Protocol (1901)
Foreign Missionaries
  • Tianjin treaty granting residence rights to encourage large influx of missionaries
  • Christian missionaries seldom welcomed, until the presence was seen as a threat in 17th century since the Jesuits, a Catholic order, came to China and if they upset the Chinese authorities, they would be deported
  • no matter how sincere the beliefs and well intentioned that the West political, economic and cultural dominance Westerners during the war had taken refuge in the mission
The Language Question
  • Westerners expected Chinese to learn other languages such as English and French set up in mission schools. This implies that European languages were in some way superior. It also created resentment
Chinese Resentment towards Missionaries
  • Chinese found they were denied access denied to justice for Chinese converts.
  • New missionaries neglecting the tact of the earlier Jesuits, treating the Chinese as subordinates and with disdain.
  • missionaries mistakenly suppressed custom of ancestor worship because the missionaries though a superstitious attempt to pray to the dead.
  • This led to out burst and anti foreigner feeling and why, in the outburst after 1840 it was the reason first targets were the missionaries in China
Tianjin Massacre 1870
  • Began with a series of attacks and missions in Tianjin, in with priests and nuns were assaulted. The attacks are occasioned by rumors that the missionaries were kidnapping Chinese children, who were in forcible baptize and held in the Catholic orphanage.
  • emergency meeting between French diplomats and Chinese authorities, with the killing of one of the Chinese by the french diplomat lead to French diplomat killed. Catholic cathedral burned down and multiple killings occurred.
  • arrival of European gunboats to quell the riot occurred and Chinese authorities were put in control and given large list of demands for the rioters to arrested.
Results of the The Tientsin Massacre
  • foreign nationals in China were confirmed in the belief, that the Manchu government was incapable of necessary order in protection
  • Chinese authorities failing to stand face for the nation against foreign pressure.
  • Foreign fears and Chinese bitterness were improved proven factor the growing sino-european Tensions that Climax the end of the century with the outbreak of the Boxer Uprising sea.
The self-Strengthening Movement
  • Aim of the The goal of a self-strengthening goal movement introduced to introduce economic reforms as a means of presence printing further foreign dominance the movement, which operated in the last four decades of the 19th century
  • Led by the Dowager Empress cixi, was the real power behind the throne who was never prepared to go along with the notion of Reform since it provided a cover for her desire to hit back at the West
Li Hongzhang (li hung-chang)
  • Loyal to Manchu dynasty, sustain the dynasty government
  • Modernizing China, so it could prevent any internal Rebellion and could compete with foreign powers that imposed on China
  • As a protégé of Zeng Guofan whom he accepted as government of Zhili Province of 1872.
  • commerce: Prominent in a ringing commercial deals with foreign companies and government.
  • finance: all the enterprises for which he was responsible were registered as a joint stock companies in which both private and government concerns could confidently invest.
  • Textiles textile helped developed already successful industry why establishing cotton mills in Shanghai.
  • Steamships nerve center, Merchant Steam ship Company, that he created delivering goods and food particularly rise from main Sea port.
  • Telegraph: Involved himself in the development of the imperial Telegraph Administration and Telegraph links east coast ports and cities
  • Railways: organized construction of a number of railway lines Tianjin
  • Crucial initiative that contributed to major extension of China's East Coast line and Imperial degree of was created that's building would be
Li Longzhang's initiatives
  • He was careful claim that everything he did was in the interest of the Manchu government to remain safe individual, his economic successes indispensable.
  • An important element was is willingness to adapt to Wester ways economic matters
  • Consequences give Timeless, new to the gross middle class and small but influential proportion of the population that wealth depend on cooperating with foreigners.
  • New opportunities would make a pro Manchu or not supporting the idea
Sheng Xuanhuai (also known as Sheng Gongbao)
  • Modernized China's economy and chose to adopt the western methods his country had to replace antiquated ways with efficient bureaucracy for what he became responsible these included:
  • banking, merchant shipping, Production coal mining, iron steel production, railway
  • To simplify the complex system in duties and levies in China is commerce
  • Created the University devoted study of engineering and instruction research based on Wester Science
Imperial Bank Of China 1897
  • Stabilized nations economical system. and empowered to issue it own currency. To make china for to financially exploiting foreign power lack of chinese expertise mean on foreign import,
  • Was in railways, Sheng had to rely on An American advance of $40 to develop mean line between Canton and Hankou, while construction link between beijing and nanjing had to be left in hands of british financiers,
Military Reform
  • The military superiority of the Japanese mean that China looking ways of improving his armies turned to outsiders by the other and a rapid and successful transformation as nation the Modernisation of its Army
  • Thousands of young Chinese cadet went to study in Japan among them to Future National leader jian jieshi.
  • Tokyo's minister in China wrote: let there be no doubt about it the bulk of China's military affairs will be Japanized Japanese power slowly but surely with spread through the Asiatic continent.
  • Such changes however came to late and what had was pal ing cat up
Limitations of the self-Strengthening Movement
  • Self-strengthening would embrace reforms the venture was still been considered
  • administratively, were for still dominated even after the indian was complete from for civil-service centre entrance
  • Industrial expansion including iron works and textile factories was impressive with and only a few problems Jiangsu, Guangdong Hebei Shandong
  • Reformers were in minority the always members of this type call me this what Western the the end a 15
  • Technician was limited and the number Chinese train as too few to contact today many geritol
  • This one to have a difference in the team was modernising china and Manchu has not never the been hear that they are that
The Sino Japaneses War 1894-1
  • Both sharing similar altitude outside world.
  • Those Oriental had for centuries regarded selfsuperior then other people so came to great Shop both countries where subject to power European imperialist forces and forced to accept you need to treat it that open their ports to European shipping.
  • Japan adopt a series to extensive reforms directed at rapid Modernisation along Western lines and wide-ranging Economic and Social or political reforms made a significant change in regard to armed services .
  • By every major points of comparison we get japan political Economic it came second in Japanese became United prosperous asserted and to claim Equality with West had become fragmented back up from Mercy of the West japan will seek expect superiority with the by making war .
Reasons for War
  • The PETAx 4 water dispute over area with Japan in creamful influence over Korea that China has traditionally regarded for butary State with a view to eventually take a complete to cover
  • The sign of japanese tension has already led to number clashes between their chinese Japanese troop and matter come to in 1894 when the Korean key appeal to China as assist then suppers on internal Rebellion against his rule is
  • Before the main body Japan and sin his owns contingents of the forces key dismissal the governments and replace with a pro japanese .
The Treaty of Shimonoseki, April 1895
  • China had to give up all claim to to Korea $230 silver equal to $5 billion.
  • Taken possess of area to southern Manchuria including report Arthur and The Pescadores ISLAND
  • Trade right factories and commercials for China Chinese to be open Japan trees
The Triple Intervention 1895
  • Disturb and the Japanese came in Shimano three European power Germany Russian that they was the legitimate and has China.
  • Russia, Russia made hand to the Russians the from suggestion that they joined pressure Germany on return .
  • France has it also want too, was smarting it agreed to joint different information. It has agreed to triple intervention.
USA's Open Door Policy
  • Has been saved from china's further from your during European scrape that to the other as for 1980s policy of the 4's was to it was for for in 8's. It was as for to keep. For the other powers power has got. It the has as was to.
  • This the that it of for to know it. The knew in that now than now those. That and. China was to China China out of. The it it were it it out has out it than.
  • Open for and in the to make that can for that and on china but to the and from had It so The . the to open they.
  • Open, in to it.