End of Cold War and Dissolution of Soviet Union - Comprehensive Notes
Essential Questions
What motivates political change?
How can economic and social changes affect a country?
The End of the Cold War
In July 1989, Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet premier, announced a new Soviet policy in Europe, stating that Eastern European countries within the Warsaw Pact were free to determine their own futures. This meant the USSR would no longer support the Communist governments it had propped up for decades.
Gorbachev's reforms echoed through Eastern Europe, leading Germans to dismantle the Berlin Wall. By the end of 1991, the Soviet Union had collapsed and been dissolved.
Gorbachev stated on October 7, 1989:
"Our perestroika led us to the conclusion that the revolutionary course would not receive the support of the working class if [its] living standards were not improving. But it turned out that the problem of sausage and bread is not the only one. The people demand a new social atmosphere, more oxygen in the society, especially because we are talking about the socialist regime… It is important not to miss our chance here. The party should have its own position on these issues, its own clear policy in this respect also. Life will punish us if we are late."
Gorbachev and Perestroika
By 1980, the Soviet Union was ailing, with a declining economy, rising infant mortality rates, increased alcoholism, and poor working conditions. Mikhail Gorbachev emerged as a reformer within the Communist Party and became the leader in March 1985.
Gorbachev initiated radical reforms based on "perestroika," or restructuring, initially focusing on economic policy. He envisioned a market economy with limited free enterprise. He also introduced "glasnost," or openness, encouraging Soviet citizens and officials to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the Soviet Union.
Western Popular Music in the USSR
Western popular music, such as the Beatles, was sometimes permitted in the Soviet Union due to anti-imperialist and left-leaning themes. Artists embracing materialism and consumption, like Van Halen, were dismissed as anti-communist. Despite restrictions, albums were often smuggled into the country. Gorbachev's reforms opened the floodgates to Western popular music, with bands like Iron Maiden and Billy Joel touring the Soviet bloc.
Gorbachev's Reforms
Gorbachev established a new Soviet parliament of elected members, the Congress of People's Deputies, which met in 1989. He created a new state presidency and in March 1990, Gorbachev became the Soviet Union's first and last president.
Gorbachev's leadership led to the end of the Cold War. In 1987, he and U.S. President Ronald Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range INF Treaty to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear weapons, aiming to reduce military budgets and focus on domestic issues.
Gorbachev ceased Soviet military support to Communist governments in Eastern Europe, leading to the overthrow of Communist regimes. The reunification of Germany on October 3, 1990, symbolized the end of the Cold War. In 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved.
Revolutions in Eastern Europe
When Gorbachev discontinued Soviet military support, revolutions occurred throughout Eastern Europe.
Poland
In 1980, Lech Wałesa organized Solidarity, a national trade union, gaining support from workers and the Roman Catholic Church under Pope John Paul II. Despite Wałesa's arrest, the movement persisted. In 1988, the Polish regime agreed to free parliamentary elections, ending 45 years of Communist rule. Wałesa was elected president in December 1990, but rapid free-market reforms led to unemployment.
Czechoslovakia
Mass demonstrations occurred in Czechoslovakia in 1988 and 1989, leading to the collapse of the Communist government in December 1989. Václav Havel became the new president. The country split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Hungary
After the suppression of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, conditions improved in the 1960s under János Kádár, who loosened restrictions on state-controlled industry and agriculture and encouraged contact with the West. The standard of living increased, and independent political parties emerged.
Romania
Nicolae Ceauşescu ruled Romania with an iron grip, brutally suppressing dissent. In 1989, economic policies led to a drop in living standards, and food shortages led to rationing. Protests were violently suppressed, but the army refused to support further repression. Ceauşescu and his wife were captured and executed, and a new government was formed.
The End of the Soviet Union
By the early 1980s, the Soviet Union faced serious challenges, including strained resources due to proxy wars and the economic burden of supporting its vast land area. The command economy faltered, and necessities were rationed. The arms race with the United States further weakened the Soviet Union.
The invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 increased the pressures on the Soviet economy. The Soviet Union withdrew its troops in 1989. The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics with 92 ethnic groups and 112 languages.
As Gorbachev released the iron grip of the Communist Party, ethnic tensions and nationalist movements emerged. In August 19, 1991, conservative leaders arrested Gorbachev and attempted to seize power, but Boris Yeltsin and Russians resisted the rebel forces.
Ukraine voted for independence on December 1, 1991. A week later, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared that the Soviet Union had ceased to exist.
The New Russia
Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991, and Boris Yeltsin became the new president of Russia. Yeltsin introduced a free-market economy, but the transition was difficult, marked by economic hardships, social disarray, and organized crime.
Yeltsin used force against Chechnya, which sought independence while fighting continued under his successor.
In 1999, Yeltsin resigned and was replaced by Vladimir Putin, who implemented reforms to boost growth. Russia's economy grew due to oil and gas exports.
In 2008, Dmitry Medvedev became president and Putin became prime minister. Putin won the presidency again in 2012 and 2018. Russia faced controversies, including military interventions in Ukraine and Syria. Internal challenges included a drop in oil prices, alcoholism, criminal activities, and the decline of the traditional family system.
The Disintegration of Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia, under Josip Broz Tito, had a Communist government but was never a Soviet satellite state. By 1990, the Communist Party collapsed. Slobodan Miloševic, the leader of Serbia, rejected efforts toward independence and sought to form a Greater Serbian state.
Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in June 1991, leading to attacks by the Yugoslav army. Serbian forces captured territory in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, implementing ethnic cleansing against Bosnians.
In 1995, with NATO support, Bosnian and Croatian forces regained territory, and a peace treaty split Bosnia into a Serb republic and a Muslim-Croat federation.
A war erupted in 1998 over Kosovo, leading to Serbian forces massacring ethnic Albanians. The United States and NATO intervened, and Kosovo regained its autonomy in 1999. Miloševic's rule ended in 2000. The last vestiges of Yugoslavia ceased to exist in 2004, and Montenegro declared independence in 2006, followed by Kosovo in 2008.