Instrument & Multi-Engine Rating – Comprehensive Study Notes

Instrument Rating Ground Component Theory

Privileges & Limitations of the Instrument Rating (IR)

• Privileges
  • Act as PIC or co-pilot under IFR, including in IMC.
  • Permitted for all phases: departure, en-route, arrival, approach, missed-approach.
• Limitations
  • Must satisfy IFR recency (see below).
  • May not exercise privileges if:
  • Recency lapsed.
  • Aircraft not IFR-approved/equipped.
  • Required endorsements absent (e.g. Piper Comanche → RU & MPPC).
  • Adhere to aircraft/airspace-specific restrictions (e.g. NVFR not in Class A).

Proficiency Check Requirements

• Purpose: Re-validate IR; formal assessment with Flight Examiner.
• Frequency: Every 12 months (12-month rolling validity).
• Content (minimum):
  • ≥ 1 instrument departure.
  • ≥ 1 instrument approach (2-D or 3-D).
  • Abnormal & emergency procedures under IFR (e.g. engine failure in IMC, partial-panel, missed approach).
• Outcome: Pass → re-validation; Fail → privileges suspended until re-tested.

IFR & Approach Recency

• IFR (general)
  • Must have flown IFR flight (PIC or dual) within preceding 90 days.
• Instrument Approach
  • ≥ 3 instrument approaches (any type, any mix) within preceding 90 days.
  • May be completed in an approved simulator.
• Non-current actions
  • Fly under supervision (dual or safety pilot) until numbers regained, or
  • Pass a proficiency check.

Night Recency

• NVFR carriage of passengers
  • In last 6 months: ≥ 1 night take-off and ≥ 1 night landing.
  • Not current → dual flight required before carrying pax.
• IR at Night
  • Same IFR/approach recency rules above still apply.

Night VFR (NVFR) Operations

• Permitted if:
  • Pilot holds current NVFR rating.
  • Operates in VMC by night (not IMC).
  • Complies with CASA NVFR weather & equipment rules.
• Weather minima – Aeroplane
  • Ceiling ≥ $1000\,\text{ft}$ AAL.
  • Visibility ≥ $5000\,\text{m}$.
  • Continuous visual reference with ground/water & visible horizon.
  • Remain clear of cloud at all times.
• Limitations
  • Not permitted in Class A (IFR only).
  • Alternate often required (lighting assurance, weather).
  • Night over featureless terrain/water discouraged unless IFR.
• Equipment additions vs Day VFR
  • Attitude Indicator.
  • Directional Gyro / heading indicator.
  • Timepiece with seconds.
  • Full external & instrument lighting (nav, landing, anti-collision, flood).

Aircraft Instrument Requirements (IFR / NVFR)

• Gyroscopic / attitude
  • Artificial Horizon (Attitude Indicator).
  • Directional Gyro / HSI.
  • Turn Coordinator or Turn-and-Slip.
• Pitot-static
  • Altimeter, Airspeed Indicator, VSI.
• Compass systems
  • Magnetic Compass + Directional Indicator.
• Time
  • Clock/watch with hour, minute, second display.
• Power monitoring (if instruments electrically driven).
• Navigation fit-out appropriate to intended routes/approaches (VOR, DME, ADF, GNSS, ILS).
• Two-way radio capable of all required frequencies.

Interpreting Operational & Meteorological Information

• Must decode & apply:
  • TAF, METAR, SPECI, TTF.
  • ARFOR, GAF, GPWT (graphic).
  • SIGMET, AIRMET, SIGWX charts.
  • Wind/Temp charts, NOTAMs.
• Key decoding: BKN, SCT, RA, BR, TEMPO, INTER, PROB30/40 etc.
• Assessment questions:
  • Is forecast above approach minima (DA/MDA)?
  • Is an alternate required?
  • Will weather affect departure window / fuel / holding?

Take-off Minima (IFR)

• If weather < landing minima and return impossible → Take-off alternate within 1 h flight time.
• Pilot & aircraft must be approved for take-off below $300\,\text{ft}$ ceiling.

Holding & Alternate Requirements

• Holding Fuel carried when:
  • Alternate required, or
  • Forecast TEMPO / PROB below minima.
• Alternate Required if:
  • No instrument approach.
  • Weather < landing minima (forecast or TEMPO/PROB).
  • Lighting unsuitable/unattended and no responsible person.
  • Nav aids critical to approach unserviceable.
• Alternate Not Required when BOTH:
  • Two independent approaches of different navaid types (one 2-D, one 3-D) available, and
  • Forecast ≥ minima for ETA ± 30 min.
• Circling/holding times: plan fuel for published hold or as required by forecast.

IFR Procedures – Airspace Classes

• Class A – IFR only; ATC separation from all.
• Class C – IFR separated from IFR/VFR; clearance + continuous comms.
• Class D – IFR separated from IFR; traffic info on VFR.
• Class E – IFR separated from IFR; VFR receives info; clearance required.
• Class G – IFR self-separates from VFR; CTAF & limited ATC advisories.
• General skills: clearance phraseology, transponder codes, CTAF calls, separation responsibility.

Departure & Approach Instrument Procedures

• SIDs/STARs: comply with altitude & speed constraints.
• Approach types:
  • RNAV (GNSS), VOR, NDB, ILS, LOC, and Circling.
• Critical elements:
  • Briefing: plate identification, nav setup, aircraft limits.
  • Segment altitudes, tracking, timing.
  • DA/MDA calculation & application; go-around triggers.
  • Missed Approach: nav aid sequencing, climb gradients.
• Visual & circling criteria: remain within protected area, maintain MDA until stable.

Operations Below LSALT & MSA

• LSALT (Lowest Safe Altitude) applies outside 25 NM of a nav aid.
  • Calculation: $Obstacle_{highest} + 1000\,\text{ft}$ (non-mountainous) or $+1500\,\text{ft}$ (mountainous).
• MSA: Within 25 NM of facility / fix; depicted on approach plates.
• Descent below LSALT/MSA permitted when:
  • Following published SID/STAR/Approach.
  • In VMC & visual reference (uncontrolled airspace).
  • Within approved visual segment (e.g. circling, visual approach).

GNSS & Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)

• GNSS Requirements
  • CASA-approved installation; current database (28-day cycle).
  • RAIM must be available (SBAS/WAAS acceptable alternative).
• PBN Constructs
  • RNAV 1 / RNAV 5 – SIDs/STARs & en-route.
  • RNP 1 accuracy: $\pm1\,\text{NM}$ 95 % of the time.
  • RNP APCH lines of minima: LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LPV.
• Both pilot & aircraft must be authorised; check AFM & licence endorsements.

Circling Approaches

• Stay within cat-based circling radius (A–E).
• Maintain MDA until:
  • Continuous visual reference with runway environment and
  • Aircraft positioned for normal landing.
• Always ensure terrain clearance; avoid descending into obscured valleys at night.

Adverse Weather Operations

• Hazards: fog, thunderstorms, icing, turbulence, wind-shear.
• Use weather products (TAF, SIGMET) to decide: delay, divert, hold, or alternate.
• Aircraft limitations: anti-ice, de-ice, crosswind max, icing certification.
• Decision-making: IFR alternate minima, fuel for diversion, personal minima.

ERSA – Normal & Emergency Procedures

• Reference for:
  • CTAF frequencies, circuit directions, lighting codes.
  • Special local procedures (e.g. parachuting, glider ops).
  • Emergency: MAYDAY/PAN calls, 121.5 MHz, diversion strips.
• Radio failure: squawk $7600$, follow ERSA procedures (arrive at CTAF, observe).

IFR Planning

• Plan includes:
  • Route (airways, SIDs, STARs).
  • Alternates & minima.
  • Fuel: fixed + variable + holding + alternate + reserve.
  • NOTAM & weather cross-check.
  • Aircraft capabilities: GNSS, PBN approval, de-ice, oxygen.
• Tools: NAIPS for submission, SARTIME, flight notifications.
• Review connections to earlier lectures: legally mandated reserves, CASA fuel policy, weight & balance impacts on endurance.

Multi-Engine Rating Ground Component Theory

Privileges & Limitations

• Privilege: Act as PIC/co-pilot on multi-engine aeroplanes within licence category.
• Limitations: Must hold current class rating, valid flight review (24 months), meet recency.

Flight Review Requirements

• Biennial (24 months); may be combined with IR proficiency check.
• Covers: handling, systems knowledge, emergency drills (esp. engine failure).

Navigation & Operating Systems

• Conventional: VOR, ADF/NDB, DME, LOC.
• GNSS: GPS w/ RAIM, SBAS, PBN compliance.
• Autopilot / Flight Director: HDG, ALT, NAV, APR modes; failure modes.
• Redundancy: dual nav for alternate exemption, cross-checking.

Normal, Abnormal & Emergency Procedures

• Normal: start, taxi, run-up (dual engines), take-off, climb, cruise, descent, landing.
• Abnormal: high CHT, gear unsafe, electrical anomalies.
• Emergency (critical focus):
  • Engine failure recognition: yaw, noise, instruments.
  • Immediate action: Maintain control – Identify – Verify – Feather.
  • Asymmetric flight: rudder, bank $\approx5^{\circ}$ into live engine, maintain $Vyse$.
  • Memory items then checklist.

Operating Limitations

• V-speeds
  • $V<em>{mc}, V</em>{yse}, V<em>r, V</em>{sse}, V<em>{fe}, V</em>{no}, V_{ne}$ etc.
• Structural: MTOW, MLW, load factors.
• Engine: Max RPM, MAP, EGT/CHT, oil limits.
• Environmental: Max demonstrated crosswind, temp limits, icing approval.

Weight & Balance

• Compute ZFW, TOW, Landing Weight.
• Ensure within CG envelope for all phases; account for fuel burn CG shift (tip tanks).
• Handling impacts:
  • Aft CG → lower stability, higher cruise speed.
  • Forward CG → higher stall speed, more stable, longer take-off roll.

Aircraft Performance Data

• Take-off / landing distance (normal & short-field).
• Accelerate-Stop / Accelerate-Go distances (where provided).
• Single-engine climb performance: rate, gradient; OEI ceiling.
• Effect of weight, density altitude, wind.

Flight Planning (Multi-Engine)

• Consider OEI performance for terrain/obstacle clearance after take-off.
• Factor TODR/LDR vs Runway Available.
• IFR alternates → ensure OEI capability to reach.
• Systems: pressurisation, oxygen, de-ice/anti-ice.
• Fuel: include additional burn if engine inoperative or holding on one engine.

Ethical, Philosophical & Practical Implications (Across Both Ratings)

• Safety vs Utility: balancing operational flexibility (e.g., IMC departure 0/800) against risk & personal minima.
• Automation Dependence: need for raw-data proficiency; ethical duty to maintain manual skills.
• Decision-making under Pressure: alternates, diversion, declaring PAN/MAYDAY – prioritising life over schedule.
• Training Discipline: memory items, checklist fidelity, simulator vs real-world skill transfer.
• Icing & Weather Ethics: legal minima are minimums, not targets; conservative planning encouraged.