Final Study Guide

Exam Details

  • Course: Miami University PSY 221

  • Exam Date: Wednesday, May 6, 2026

  • Time: 11:40 AM

  • Format: Paper exam with scantron; multiple-choice questions

  • Total Questions: 60 questions; worth 3 points each

  • Maximum Points: 180 points, including 10 points extra credit

  • Passing Score: Can miss up to 10 points (approximately 3 questions) and still achieve a perfect 100%

  • Answer Sheet: Must be filled in using a #2 pencil; pens or other types of pencils will result in incorrect answers

  • Banner ID Needed: Must know Banner ID # (not unique ID) to fill in the scantron

  • Submission Process: After completing the exam, return both the exam and scantron to the front of the class and sign a sign-out sheet.

Study Guide Topics

Chapters 5 & 6

  1. Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination, and Social Groups
       - Definitions:
         - Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs about a group of people.
         - Prejudice: Preconceived opinion not based on reason or actual experience, typically negative.
         - Discrimination: Behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group based on their perceived characteristics.
         - Social Groups: Categories of people who share certain characteristics (e.g., race, gender, interests).
       - Examples:
         - Stereotype: Believing that all lawyers are greedy.
         - Prejudice: Holding a dislike for a particular ethnicity without personal experience.
         - Discrimination: Not hiring someone because of their gender.
         - Social Group: The LGBTQ+ community.
     

  2. Effects of Social Categorization
       - Key Concepts:
         - Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG): Associating oneself with successful groups to enhance one's self-esteem.
         - Cutting Off Reflected Failure (CORF): Disassociating from groups that have failed to protect one's self-image.
         - Ingroup Favoritism: Preference for members of one's own group over outsiders.
         - Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: Tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar than they are.
       - Documentary Reference: Clips from A Class Divided illustrated ingroup favoritism as group division was utilized to study relationships.
       - Reason for Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: Limited interactions with and understanding of outgroup members leading to broad generalizations.

  3. Effects of Stereotypes
       - Positive and Negative Stereotypes: Can influence behavior and expectations.
       - Accuracy of Stereotypes: Stereotypes can be based on kernels of truth but often exaggerated, leading to inaccuracies.

  4. Illusory Correlation
       - Definition: The perception of a relationship between two variables when none exists.
       - Example: Assuming all immigrants commit crimes due to high media coverage of specific incidents.
       - Reason for Occurrence: Cognitive biases leading us to notice and remember instances that confirm stereotypes.

  5. Impact of Activated Stereotypes
       - Stereotypes shape our interpretations, judgments, and behaviors in significant ways, leading to biased outcomes.

  6. Moral Exclusion
       - Definition: The process of perceiving certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary of moral consideration.
       - Example: Justifying harm to outgroup members during conflicts.

  7. Stereotype Threat
       - Definition: The fear that one will confirm a negative stereotype about one's group, which can negatively impact performance.
       - Mitigation Strategies: Creating an inclusive environment and emphasizing individual abilities can help safeguard against stereotype threat effects.

  8. Reducing Stereotypes
       - Various methods include education, increased interaction, and awareness of implicit biases.
         - Meaning of Unprejudiced: Actively aware and working against one’s biases and stereotypes.

  9. Contact Hypothesis
       - Definition: The theory that under appropriate conditions, interpersonal contact is one of the most effective ways to reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
       - Effective Contact Strategies:
         - Equal status between groups.
         - Shared goals, cooperative activities.
         - Institutional support from authorities.

Group Conflict/Prejudice Reduction

  1. Reducing Group Conflict/Prejudice
        - Example from Robber's Cave Experiment: Conflict was reduced when groups were forced to work towards shared superordinate goals, such as fixing a water shortage.
        - Superordinate Goals: Goals that require cooperation from both groups to achieve.
        - Example: Teaming sports competitors for a charity event to promote unity.

Chapter 13

  1. Aggression and Conflict Definitions
       - Aggression: Behavior intended to harm another individual.
       - Types of Aggression:
         - Hostile: Driven by anger to harm another (e.g., bar fight).
         - Instrumental: Intentions to achieve a goal (e.g., premeditated murder).
         - Physical: Harm through physical means (e.g., hitting).
         - Relational: Harm through damage to social relationships (e.g., gossiping).
         - Verbal: Harm through speech (e.g., insults).

  2. General Aggression Model (GAM)
       - Describes how personal and situational factors interact to influence aggression through cognitive, affective, and arousal pathways.
       - Example: How societal norms (like honor) can escalate a response to aggression.

  3. Influences on Aggression
       - Rewards: Positive reinforcement can increase aggression likelihood (e.g., gaining respect from peers).
       - Culture of Honor: In some cultures, perceived insults to personal reputation can lead to higher aggression levels, especially violent crimes (e.g., homicides).
       - Gender Differences: Males often display more physical aggression whereas females may show relational aggression.

  4. Frustration-Aggression Theory
       - Definition: Frustration leads to aggression when goals are blocked.
       - Example: Driver gets angry at traffic jams due to a delay in reaching a meeting.

  5. Observational Learning of Aggression
       - Observing aggressive or non-aggressive models (role models) influences one's aggression levels.
       - Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment: Children exposed to aggressive behavior towards a doll imitated the aggression when given the opportunity to play with the doll.

  6. Learned Aggressive Stimuli
       - Definition: Cues that elicit aggression because of past experiences (e.g., seeing a weapon).
       - Non-Aggressive Cues: These can evoke aggression under certain circumstances when processed superficially.

  7. Superficial vs. Systematic Processing
       - Superficial processing can lead to impulsivity and aggressive acts.
       - Limitations: Stress and time pressure can limit deep processing, thereby increasing aggression likelihood.

  8. Realistic Conflict Theory and Relative Deprivation
       - Realistic Conflict Theory: Competition for limited resources leads to conflict and aggression.
       - Relative Deprivation: Perceptions of unfairness in resource distribution fuel group conflict.
       - Egoistic vs. Fraternal Relative Deprivation: Egoistic is when individuals feel deprived in relation to others; fraternal involves a group comparison where one group feels disadvantaged.

  9. Ways to Reduce Aggression
       - Include strategies like education, providing empathy training, and promoting peaceful conflict resolution.

Chapter 14

  1. Prosocial Behavior vs. Cooperation
       - Prosocial Behavior: Any action intended to help others (e.g., donating to charity).
       - Cooperation: Working together towards a common goal (e.g., team projects).

  2. Influences on Helping Behavior
       - Perception of need affects willingness to help; people in rural areas are generally more willing to help than those in crowded urban areas due to social isolation.

  3. Time Pressure Impact
       - Good Samaritan Study: Individuals in a hurry were less likely to help a person in need compared to those with more time.

  4. Norms of Helping
       - Norm of Social Responsibility: Social expectation that individuals will help others in need.
       - Controllability Perception: If people feel the victim is responsible for their situation, they are less likely to offer help.
       - Bystander Effect: More bystanders lead to less personal responsibility, as demonstrated in the seizure experiment where the presence of others affected the likelihood of helping.

  5. Norms of Family Privacy
       - Certain social norms may prohibit intervening in family matters, impacting prosocial behaviors.
       - Smoke in Lab Room Study: Results showed that individuals were less likely to react to smoke in the room when others were present, demonstrating the bystander effect.

  6. Egoism vs. Altruism
       - Egoism: Helping others for self-benefit (e.g., social recognition).
       - Altruism: Helping others without expectation of personal gain.

  7. Evolution of Helping and Cooperation
       - Biological perspective suggests that these behaviors evolved to enhance group survival (e.g., sharing resources among groups).

  8. Rewards and Costs of Prosocial Behavior
       - Rewards (such as social approval) can motivate helping actions, but in some contexts (like emergencies), costs may be less influential.
       - Emotional states, like being in a good mood, enhance likelihood of helping behaviors.

  9. Negative-State Relief Model and Empathy-Altruism Model
       - Negative-State Relief Model: Helping others can alleviate one’s own distress.
       - Empathy-Altruism Model: Feeling empathy for others motivates helping behaviors, even at a personal cost.

  10. Increasing Helping and Reducing Bystander Effect
        - Strategies include making individuals feel personally responsible and providing specific instructions on what to do (e.g., telling bystanders to call 911).