cmn 277
ways of knowing: (1) method of tradition (true because its always been true); (2) method of intuition (self-evident or stands to reason); (3) method of authority (trusted sources makes claim); (4) method of science (known through series of procedure and analysis
errors in human inquiry: (1) inaccurate observations; (2) overgeneralizations; (3) selective observation (ignoring what disproves hypothesis); (4) Ex post facto hypothesizing (forming hypothesis after observing data); (5) Ego involvement; (6) premature closure of inquiry (stopping study when a satisfactory answer is found); (7) mystification (belief that certain things are unknowable)
components of the scientific process: (1) empirical, we can observe and measure; (2) systematic, conscious and planned activity; (3) logical, deductions (hypothesis reading) and inductions (making reasonable conclusions); (4) seeks to be objective, aims to remove bias, explicit rules and procedures; (5) Public, findings are open for viewing and are replicable
content analysis: examines and categorizes the content of communication (like text, images, or videos) to identify patterns, themes, or recurring concepts within it,
survey: relies on self-reports, advantages include: representative, small margin of error (+-3%), disadvantages: needs representation, no causality
experiment: allows causal claims, effect of independent variables on dependent variables
Nature of Media: History and Development 1:
cognitive approach to media effects: (1) emphasizes the way our minds crate knowledge based on media, (2) media mafic window on the world and door through which ideas enter our minds, (3) mass media has a large anonymous, heterogenous audience, (4) mass media’s main goal is to attract and half large audience for advertisers
mass communication as a process: (1) message typically formulated by professional communicators, (2) message sent in a rapid and continuous way via the media, (3) message reaches large and diverse (mass) audiences, (4) audience interprets message so as to experience meaning intended ideally by the communicator
media influences on audience: (1) range from trivial to profound, (2) learning of new facts, (3) entertainment, (4) change beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, (5) intended and unintended influences
consequences of using a mass medium: (1) reduces feedback and process of role raking, (2) misinterpretation, (3) incongruence reduces influence, (4) traditionally a largely one-way activity
consequences of large audiences: (1) content designed for the “average citizen” – lowest common denominator, (2) assume audience have limited attention, (3) audience prefers to be entertained rather than enlightened; lose interest in subjects making intellectual demands
society’s influence on media: (1) media do not exist in a vacuum, (2) cultural context shapes its nature and function, (3) media systems differed greatly from society to society, (4) level of technology dictates physical nature of media, (5) economic support influences media, (6) political system influences media content
trends of media ownership: (1) concentration of ownership within one industry (ownership by fewer people), (2) cross media ownership, (3) conglomerate ownership (non-media ownership, ex: bezos), (4) vertical integration (produce and distribute)
pros and cons of media ownership:
CONS: (1) reduces number of ideas, (2) may reduce amount of local information available, (2) less criticism of large corporations, (4) non-media owners insensitive to media standards if professionalism and ethics, (5) need higher profits to pay for buy outs, (6) too much political power. PROS: (1) synergy; enhanced combined effect, (2) cuts down on business costs, (3) increase resources and services, (4) less likelihood of local buas in news/information, (5) larger company can take more risks with certain projects
propaganda model and five filters influencing news coverage: five filters of political economy that influence mass media content: (1) ownership, (2) advertisers, (3) sources, (4) flak, (5) ideology
policy players: (1) legislative branch (congress), (2) FCC (communication act of 1934) – congress delegates authority for FCC to regulate, appointed by the president, power to make regulations, power to dent or accept licensing applications, (3) FTC (federal trade commission) – charged with regulating advertising and commerce, charged with protecting people from deceptive ads, (4) interested partied (industry groups, citizen activist groups), (5) judicial branch – courts cannot pick policies, are reactive, three decisions: uphold, reverse, demand, (6) executive branch – appoints FCC and FTC, has own communication policy advisors
scarcity: broadcasters have a license because (1) airwaves are a national/natural resource and (2) co-channel interference
video distribution influences on regulation: (1) original broadcast has the most content regulation, (2) cable/satellite: more options, subscription based, fewer content regulations, (3) computers/internet: almost limitless capacity, very little content regulation
macro-policy issues: (1) access: who is allowed to speak, (2) diversity: are different voices allows to speak, (3) “public interest:” what helps the public or what public likes
micro-policy issues: (1) further regulation encompassing specific policy decisions can drive outcomes, (2) deregulation: avoid involvement and let market rule
means for achieving policy goals: (1) regulation: government passes law, (2) raised eyebrow approach (government threatens regulation), (3) marketplace competition: government does nothing
indecency regulation: (1) originally forwarded as channeling idea (2) first blow policy: ideas that children can be harmed by their first, brief exposure to indecent language and imagery, (3) content that describes or depicts sexual or excretory activities or organs, (4) patently offensive according to contemporary community standards, (5) FCC vs. pacifica, 1978, seven dirty words, (6) safe hours 10pm-6am
Obrien test: used to test whether policies are constitutional. Must follow all three following: (1) is regulation based on a compelling government interest, (2) does regulation further the governmental interest, (3) is the regulation the least restrictive means of accomplishing the governmental interest
Section 230: of the communication decency act (1996): no provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider
Net neutrality: a utility to have equal access to all services
magic bullet theory: (1) mass media affect everyone in the same way, (2) effects are powerful, direct, and immediate
two-step flow of communication: reinforcement via opinion leaders
media effects defined and complications: fundamentally the belief that the media has some influence upon people and their actions; can establish new or alter existing beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors
four general types of media effect: (1) cognitive; how and what you think, (2) affective: how you feel, (3) physiological; physical reactions, (4) behavioral: what you do
Social Learning Theory: (behavior) we learn behaviors from observing others performing those behaviors and subsequently adopting them
scripts, schemas, and social cognition: (cognitive) knowledge structures that organize an individuals memory for objects or events; media presentations produce inferences
cultivation theory: (cognitive/affective) extensive exposure to media over time gradually shapes our view of the world – fearful
agenda setting theory: (cognitive) the news media do not tell us what to think, but what to think about
socialization theories: the media teaches us about the world; effects greatest when we perceive the content as realistic
uses and gratifications: (attitude/behavior) people use media to fulfill certain gratifications; effects may depend on gratification sought
sleeper effects: no immediate effects but appreciable delayed effect; eventual disconnect between the message and messenger
accumulation theory: (1) media is a necessary condition in producing long-term change, (3) corroborative effects: similar coverage across media, (3_ consistent, persistent, and corroborative presentations by the media has large role in values
adoption process: deals with how anything new becomes adopted into society; five steps: (1) potential adopters become aware of the innovations presence, (2) arouses interest, (3) innovation is evaluated in terms of costs and rewards, (4) briefly tried, (5) adoption takes place and the innovation is in regular use
modeling process: new patterns of behaviors are acquired by seeing them acted out by others; various actions are modeled by attractive people in media content; 5 steps (1) member of audience encounters a form of action portrayed by a model in the media, (2) individual identifies with the model, (3) receiver remembers and reproduces the actions of the model, (4) performing the reproduced activity results in reward (5) positive reinforcement increases the probability that the reproduced activity will be used again
Social Expectation Theory: people learn the rules and requirements of various groups by seeing them in the media; viewers have a good understanding of what to expect within such a setting, even if they do not belong to them
Cultivation: (1) tv/video contains consistent themes (2) heavy television viewers perceive the real world to be more like the tv world (3) heavy tv viewers rely on tv whereas light viewers rely on more varied sources of information (4) resonance: personal experiences resonate with tv world and produce a more profound effect (5) mainstreaming: heavy viewing overrides differences in perspectives that may stem from other factors (6) first order effects: make quantitative estimates of occurrences of certain things (beliefs) (7) second order effects: asses generalized attitudes about the world (8) changes occur over time
Social Perception and Processing of Media:
schema function: our belief systems of characterizing various social groups; cognitive structures that function via: (1) encoding – making sense of a new situation, (2) memory – what we recall when we leave a situation, (3) inference – judgement we make (assumptions)
types of schemas: (1) person – peoples understanding of the psychology of particular individuals, focusing on their traits and goals (2) self-schemas – we manage information about ourselves similar to the way we manage information about others (3) event – describe appropriate sequences of events in well-known situations (4) role – the cognitive structure that organizes one’s knowledge about the appropriate behaviors expected of a particular social position
outgroup homogeneity: a group of outsiders appears less variable than one’s own group
outgroup polarization: good outsiders are better and bas outsiders are worse than comparable insiders
accessibility and social perception:
Exemplification Theory: (1) news media can define issues or exemplify them (2) the news is full of exemplars inspired more by dramatic reporting and ideology rather than facts (3) base rate information is seldom reported: instead exemplars become reported (4) availability heuristic: judgments about event populations depend on exemplars in the media that are available/cognitively manifest
Hypothesis: A testable statement or educated guess about the relationship between variables. It’s formulated before conducting research and can be either supported or refuted through data.
Falsifiable: A characteristic of a hypothesis or theory that means it can be proven false through evidence. If it cannot be tested in such a way, it is not scientifically useful.
Parsimonious: Refers to the principle of simplicity in scientific theories. The simplest explanation, with the least number of assumptions, is preferred when explaining phenomena.
Intersubjective: Refers to the idea that scientific findings should be able to be consistently replicated by different researchers under similar conditions, ensuring the objectivity and reliability of the findings.
Logical: Scientific research and conclusions must follow sound reasoning and valid arguments. All steps in the process must be logically connected.
Skeptical/Scientific Attitude: A mindset in which researchers critically evaluate evidence and claims, remain open to new ideas, and are willing to revise theories based on evidence.
Longitudinal Survey: A study that follows the same individuals or groups over a long period of time, allowing researchers to observe changes over time and establish causal relationships.
Trend Study: A type of longitudinal research that examines changes within a population over time without following the same individuals. It tracks general shifts in attitudes, behaviors, or trends.
Cohort Study: A longitudinal study that tracks a specific group (cohort) of individuals over time, often focusing on particular characteristics, such as age or profession, and how these impact behaviors or outcomes.
Panel Study: Another form of longitudinal study, but it follows the same participants (panel) over time to assess changes within individuals rather than groups.
Time-Order: Refers to the sequence in which events occur. To establish causality, the cause must precede the effect.
Manifest Content: The literal, obvious content in media (e.g., words, images, or scenes) that is directly observable.
Latent Content: The deeper or hidden meanings behind media content, often implicit or symbolic, that requires interpretation beyond what is immediately observable.
Coding Reliability: The consistency with which data is categorized or coded during research, ensuring that different researchers would classify the same content in the same way.
Unit of Analysis: The specific object or entity being studied in research (e.g., an individual, a piece of media content, a group).
Convergence: The blending of different types of media content and platforms, resulting in integrated or interconnected media experiences (e.g., TV content available online).
Meta-Analysis: A research method that combines data from multiple studies on the same topic to identify overall trends and draw broader conclusions.
Active Audience: The idea that audiences actively engage with and interpret media, rather than being passive recipients of media messages.
Agenda Setting Theory: The theory that media doesn't necessarily tell people what to think, but it influences what they think about by focusing attention on certain issues, thereby setting the public agenda.
Blogs: Online platforms that allow individuals or organizations to share their personal views, news, or opinions on various topics. Blogs are often seen as a form of alternative media.
Convergence: The merging of previously separate media forms (e.g., print, television, online platforms) into more integrated forms. This allows consumers to access content across multiple devices and platforms.
Diffusion of Information: The process by which new ideas, innovations, or technologies spread through society, facilitated by media and communication channels.
Framing: The way media presents an issue or story. By framing it in a particular way (e.g., emphasizing certain aspects or language), media can shape how the audience perceives and understands the issue.
Gatekeeper: Individuals or organizations (e.g., editors, producers) who control the flow of information and determine what content is published, aired, or shared.
Hypodermic Needle Model: An early model that suggested media messages have a direct, powerful, and immediate impact on audiences. It implies that audiences are passive and are "injected" with media messages.
Narrowcasting: The practice of targeting specific, niche audiences with tailored content, as opposed to broadcasting, which targets a mass audience.
Selective Attention: The process by which individuals focus on certain aspects of media content while ignoring others, often based on personal interests or biases.
Selective Exposure: The tendency for people to seek out media that aligns with their existing beliefs and attitudes, avoiding content that challenges their worldview.
Telecommuting: The practice of working remotely using digital communication tools like email, video conferencing, and cloud technologies.
Teleconferencing: Communication or meetings held remotely through video or audio conferencing tools, allowing participants to interact in real-time despite being in different locations.
Mass Communication Defined: Refers to the process of transmitting information, messages, or content to large, diverse audiences via mass media channels (e.g., TV, radio, internet).
Media Literacy: The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms. Media literacy involves understanding how media content is produced and how it influences society.
Hypertextuality: The feature of digital media that allows text and other content to be linked together through hyperlinks, enabling users to navigate between related pieces of information.
Interactivity: The degree to which users can engage with media content, allowing them to influence, shape, or modify the experience (e.g., interactive websites, video games).
Packet Switching: A method of data transmission used in digital communications, where data is broken into smaller packets and sent independently over networks, then reassembled at the destination.
Synchronicity: The extent to which communication occurs in real-time. For example, phone calls or live broadcasts are synchronous, while emails or blog posts are asynchronous.
V-Chip: A device that allows parents to block TV programs based on their content ratings, giving them more control over what children watch.
Indecency Defined: Media content that contains offensive or inappropriate material, particularly concerning language, sexual content, or violence. Legal standards regulate when and where such content can be broadcast.
First Blow Policy: A policy approach that involves addressing an issue before it escalates or becomes widespread. In media regulation, this can involve proactive measures to prevent harm to vulnerable audiences.
Deregulation: The process of removing government regulations from the media industry, often with the aim of fostering competition, lowering costs, and increasing innovation.
Children’s Television Act (CTA): A U.S. law requiring broadcasters to air educational programming for children and limiting the amount of commercial content shown during children's programming.
Kids' Understanding of Selling Intent: Research into how children interpret advertisements and whether they can distinguish between entertainment content and marketing or promotional content.
Bumpers: Short segments used in television programming, typically at the beginning or end of a commercial break, that provide a transition between content and ads.
Host-Selling: A form of advertising in which the host of a television program promotes products or services during the show itself.
Program-Length Commercials (PLCs): Television programs that are essentially advertisements for a product, where the content is designed primarily to promote or sell a product or service.
Administrative Research: Research designed to solve practical problems or improve specific practices, rather than developing broad theories.
Critical Research: Research aimed at analyzing and critiquing the role of media in perpetuating power dynamics, inequalities, and ideologies.
Operational Definition: A definition that specifies how a concept is measured or quantified in research. It allows for clarity and consistency in research findings.
Direct Effects Model: A theory suggesting that media directly influences people’s attitudes and behaviors, often immediately and in a clear-cut way.
Theory of Uniform Effects: The idea that media has the same impact on all individuals, regardless of their personal differences.
Conditional Effects Model: The theory that media effects vary based on individual factors, such as personality, background, or social context.
Cumulative Effects: The idea that repeated exposure to media content over time gradually shapes people's attitudes and behaviors.
Third-Person Effect: The belief that other people are more influenced by media messages than oneself, often leading to overestimating the media's impact on others.
Social Cognitive Theory: Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes the role of observational learning and imitation in behavior development. Media plays a major role in modeling behaviors.
Limited Capacity Model: This theory posits that individuals have a limited ability to process information, and media content must be tailored to fit the viewer's cognitive capacity.
Mental Effort and Social Interaction: The idea that understanding media content requires cognitive effort, and the way we interact with media can shape our interpretations and reactions. Social interaction around media can also influence how it is perceived (e.g., discussing a show with friends).
Attention: The focus given to specific media content. Attention is limited, so individuals are more likely to process and remember media that they pay attention to.
Suspending Disbelief: The process by which audiences accept fictional or unrealistic elements in media for the sake of enjoyment, allowing them to immerse themselves in a story or narrative.
Transportation: A psychological state in which an individual becomes mentally absorbed or immersed in a narrative, losing awareness of the outside world while engaging with the content. This can lead to stronger emotional reactions and influence behaviors.
Identification: The process of connecting with or seeing oneself in a character, story, or media content. Identifying with characters or situations can influence a viewer's emotions and attitudes.
Empathy: The ability to emotionally resonate with a character's experiences or feelings in media content. Media can evoke empathy, fostering emotional connections and sometimes altering attitudes toward real-world issues.
Suspense: The sense of anticipation or anxiety created in an audience as they await the outcome of a media narrative. It engages attention and emotions, often used to maintain viewer interest.
Perceived Reality: How individuals perceive and interpret media content, influencing how they relate it to their real-world experiences. The boundary between fictional and real-world events can be blurred by media, particularly in immersive formats
Reflection Myth: The notion that media merely mirrors reality and reflects society's existing norms, beliefs, and values. This idea overlooks the role of media in shaping and constructing societal perspectives.
Multitasking: Engaging with multiple media or tasks simultaneously, such as watching TV while using a smartphone. Research shows that multitasking can divide attention and impact how effectively media is processed.
Change Blindness: A phenomenon where individuals fail to notice changes in their environment or media content, even when those changes are substantial. This suggests that the brain focuses only on certain details, ignoring others.
Parasocial Interaction: The one-sided relationship that viewers or audiences form with media figures, such as celebrities or characters. These interactions feel real and personal, even though the media figure is unaware of the viewer.
Accessibility: The ease with which a person can bring specific information to mind. In the context of media, it refers to how readily certain thoughts or ideas are activated by media exposure.
Chronic Accessibility: The tendency for certain concepts or ideas to be easily activated in an individual's mind due to frequent exposure or personal relevance. For example, someone who is constantly exposed to media depictions of violence may be more likely to perceive threats in real life.
Construct Accessibility: The degree to which certain concepts or categories are easily accessible for individuals based on their experiences and prior media exposure. For instance, media depictions of gender roles may influence how easily a person accesses stereotypical views of gender.
Attitude Accessibility: Refers to the speed and ease with which a person can retrieve their attitude or opinion about a particular topic. If a person has strong, established views on an issue, these attitudes will be more accessible when engaging with related media content.
Norm Accessibility: The extent to which social norms or expectations are activated in response to media content. Media representations can trigger thoughts about what is considered "normal" behavior in society.
Priming: A psychological process in which exposure to certain media content influences an individual’s later responses, attitudes, or behavior. For example, seeing aggressive behavior in media might prime a person to react more aggressively in a later situation.
Political Priming: A form of priming where media exposure to certain political issues or events influences individuals' political opinions, judgments, or voting behavior. Political priming can make certain issues seem more important or urgent.
Priming of Stereotypes: Exposure to media content that reinforces societal stereotypes can activate those stereotypes in an individual’s mind. This can lead to biased perceptions of individuals or groups based on media portrayals.