HL.c.1 - Ethics is the branch of philosophy that focuses on moral principles and what behaviors are right and wrong

Importance of Ethics

• It helps us determine moral principles that will guide how humans act and justify their actions in different situations

  • It helps us ensure that our actions align with our values

Different Approaches to Ethics

• Deontological Ethics (Duty-Based Ethics):

  • This framework states that an action is good or bad based on rules and principles, regardless of the action’s consequences

  • Consequentialism (Outcome-Based Ethics):

    • This framework suggests that an action is good or bad based on what the consequences of that specific action are

  • Virtue ethics:

    • This framework says that good actions are carried out by people who possess good moral traits, such as loyalty, courage, kindness, and wisdom

    • A broad term that focuses on people, not actions

How Ethics are Influenced by Culture and Traditions:

• Religious influences

  • Collectivism vs individualism

    • Collectivist societies: value the needs of a group/community

    • Individualist societies: value individual freedoms and rights

  • Environmental ethics

    • Some societies believe humans should respect the environment and protect the natural world

  • Moral relativism

    • What is considered ethical varies across different societies

  • Globalization and ethical conflicts

How Ethics Influences Everyday Life

• Daily decisions

  • Small and big choices in everyday life are influenced by an individual’s morals

  • Societal norms

    • What a society collectively views as right or wrong

  • Behaviors

  • Societal development

    • Ethical principles shape how society develops in many aspects (ex. Economic, environmental, social)

  • Global challenges

    • Global politics and challenges are also shaped by ethics

HL.c.2 - Environmental ethics is a branch of ethical philosophy that addresses environmental issues

Environmental Ethics: A branch of philosophy that focuses on the relationship humans have with the living and nonliving components of the natural world

• Began in the 1960s and 1970s

  • Emerged after growing public concern about pollution, species extinction, and resource depletion

  • Went against traditional ethics, which focused more on human-to-human actions, and expanded to develop ethical principles that included non-human interactions

  • Challenged the idea that nature’s value is only determined by how useful it is to humans

  • Proposed that humanity's relationship with the environment should be seen as a moral concern

Important Concepts and Theories:

• Intrinsic vs. instrumental value

  • The elements of nature have intrinsic value that does not depend on it’s utility to humans

Ecocentrism

• Human-centered ethical considerations should be replaced by a nature-centered approach

The Land Ethic

• Theory by Aldo Leopold that includes nature as part of a community

HL.c.3 - A variety of ethical frameworks and conflicting ethical values emerge from differing fundamental beliefs concerning the relationship between humans and nature

Ecocentric Ethics:

• Belief that all components of nature are considered equal to humans

  • Key principles:

    • All parts of nature have inherent value

    • All parts of nature have rights

    • All decisions made by humans should either not harm or benefit the environment

Technocentric Ethics:

• Belief that nature’s purpose is to serve human needs

  • The main goal is to maximize the amount of people who can benefit from the resources

  • Key Principles

    • Nature’s worth is determined by how useful it is to people

    • Ethical choices should focus on helping the most amount of people

    • Decisions, often at the expense of the environment, should be evaluated based on how much they benefit humans

HL.c.4 - Instrumental value is the usefulness an entity has for humans

Instrumental Values

• A value that helps people achieve specific end goals

  • In environmental ethics, it focuses on how useful something in nature is to human needs/desires

Impact of Instrumental Value on Human’s Relationship with Nature

• Resource Conservation

  • The preservation of nature can be justified by the desire to prevent negative effects on human health (such as floods, and air pollution), rather than preserving nature purely for its intrinsic value

  • Different Views on the Exploitation of Nature

    • Anthropocentric views: This view recognizes that the exploitation of nature exists, but advocates for sustainable practices solely because it threatens human survival

    • Technocentric views: This view proposes that technology can substitute everything provided by nature

HL.c.5 - Intrinsic value is the value one may attach to something simply for what it is

Intrinsic Value

• Refers to the inherent worth something has, which is completely independent of how beneficial it might be

  • Very important concept in environmental ethics

    • Promotes biodiversity

    • Encourages restoration efforts

Challenges in Applying Intrinsic Value

• Measuring: Intrinsic value is subjective, it cannot be quantified or economically assessed

  • Implementation: In systems driven by economic consideration, it’s difficult to integrate intrinsic values into policy

HL.c.6 - The concepts of instrumental and intrinsic value are not exclusive

Balance between Intrinsic and Instrumental Values

• Policy Formation

  • Both values are considered when a government is forming a policy that addresses environmental concerns

  • Conservation Efforts

    • Sometimes the instrumental value of an element of nature leads to increased conservation efforts, such as preserving a forest because it is a tourist attraction, so both values are considered

HL.c.7 - An entity has “moral standing” if it is to be morally considered about how we ought to act towards it

Moral Standing

• A belief that determines if acting morally towards an entity will make a difference

  • An aspect of moral standing is whether or not future generations should be taken into consideration when making ethical decisions

  • Biocentric Environmental Ethics:

    • Ethics that argues all living creatures have direct moral standing, and there is no real reason to act morally towards some species, but not others

Moral Standing of Living vs. Nonliving Entities

• Ecocentric

  • This viewpoint argues that nonliving entities (such as rivers, landscapes, and more) are essential parts of ecosystems and should be given moral standing

  • Anthropogenic and Technocentric

    • This viewpoint argues that unless a nonliving entity directly benefits humans, it does not have moral standing

Moral Standing of Different Living Organisms

• Sentient Animals

  • Some argue that animals that can feel pain or pleasure have moral standing

  • Microorganisms

    • Some ecocentric views also include the belief that microorganisms should have moral standing

HL.c.8 - There are three major approaches to traditional ethics: virtue ethics, consequentialist (for example, utilitarian) ethics, and rights-based (deontological) ethics

Application of the 3 types of Ethical Approaches

• Virtue Ethics

  • Applied when an individual’s behavior is a consequence of the individual being virtuous

  • Consequentialist Ethics

    • Applied when the behavior/action will result in the best possible consequences

  • Rights-based Ethics

    • Applied when the action taken respect and upholds the pre-existing rights of an individual or entity

HL.c.9 - Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the person doing the action. It assumes that good people will do good actions and bad people will do bad actions

Virtue Ethics in the Context of Environmental Ethics

• Respecting the natural world by acknowledging its intrinsic value

  • Caring about the impact humanity’s actions have on the environment

  • Recognizing the duty humanity has to take care of the natural world and taking steps to reduce the negative impact humans have on it

HL.c.10 - Consequentialist ethics is the view that the consequences of an action determine the morality of the action

Consequentialist Ethics in the Context of Environmental Ethics

• The goal is to make choices that will result in the greatest amount of benefit for the most people

  • Environmental policies are passed that will result in overall better health and a more stable climate

  • The sustainable management of resources results in the quality and quantity of the resources being better for future generations

HL.c.11 - Rights-based ethical systems focus on the actions and whether they conflict with the rights of others. There is debate about what these rights might be

Rights-based Ethics in the Context of Environmental Ethics

• Aligns with the concept of intrinsic value

  • The rights of animals are protected because they are considered to have intrinsic value and violating their inherent rights is unethical

  • Environmental conservation is prioritized because actions that degrade these ecosystems/natural features are considered unethical

  • Many Indigenous communities have traditions of recognizing the intrinsic value of nature for a very long time

HL.c.12 - Some people hold the view that whatever is natural is correct or good. This position is contentious and is described as the “appeal to nature” fallacy

“Appeal to nature” Fallacy

• Prominent discussion in diet choices, medical treatments, and environmental conservation

  • An argument that something is ethical simply because it is natural, which suggests that natural things are morally superior to unnatural ones

  • Overlooks the scientific validation of certain synthetic products, such as medicine, because it is unnatural

  • Often misleading argument, because it fails to consider the complexities of what is considered natural or not

    • Many synthetic substances originate from nature, so it's difficult to define when something is considered unnatural or not

    • Humans are a part of nature, so it’s unclear whether human intervention in nature is natural or unnatural

HL.c.13 - Environmental movements and social justice movements have developed from separate histories but are increasingly seeking common goals of equitable and just societies

• The exploitation of the environment that stems from the belief that humans are superior to nature parallels other forms of exploitation, such as sexism, racism, and economic inequality

Feedback loops and the connection between Economic, social and Environmental sustainability

• The connection between these three areas is crucial because the dynamics that result in social/economic inequalities also lead to environmental degradation, which will often harm the overall health of disadvantaged communities

  • Addressing issues in one of these areas will have an effect on the others, which can create a positive feedback loop and benefit many communities