Types of maps include reference maps and thematic maps.
Reference Maps: Show locations of places and geographic features.
Thematic Maps: Show spatial distribution of one or more attributes across a geographic area.
Cartogram: Distorts land areas to show the change of a value. Source 1
Choropleth: Uses different colors/shades to show the change of a value. Source 2
Dot: Uses the amount of dots to represent the value; the more dots, the higher the value. Source 3
Graduated Symbol: Uses the size of a symbol to represent the value; the larger the symbol, the higher the value. Source 4
Isoline: Uses lines to connect areas that share a particular value. Source 5
Book Pages 40 - 43
Spatial Patterns (Topic 1.1)
Types of spatial patterns include absolute and relative distance and direction, clustering, dispersal, and elevation.
Direction and Distance
Absolute distance: Distance that can be counted using a standard unit of a precise measurement. Example: It takes exactly 5.9 miles to drive to duPont Manual High School from Louisville Male.
Absolute direction: Uses North, South, East, and West (the Cardinal Directions). Example: duPont Manual is southwest of Ralph Wright Natatorium.
Relative Distance: Distance that cannot be counted using a standard unit of measurement; it is imprecise. Example: It takes about 25 minutes from White Blossom Neighborhood to duPont Manual High School.
Relative Direction: Imprecise terms used to describe direction: left/right and up/down are examples. Example: If you walk out towards the courtyard of duPont Manual and walk left about a block, you can find Cardinal Towne.
Types of Distribution
Clustering: When similar people or items are grouped close. Example: When taking our class Unit 1, take 2 exams; we are sorted into groups at our table with people who had similar scores.
Dispersal: The spacing of people or items within geographic population barriers. Example: My neighbor was sent to Male High School, however, I was sent to duPont Manual High School.
Elevation: The altitude of a place above sea level or ground. Example: Mount Everest's elevation is 8,848 meters above sea level.
See Pages: 36-37
Map Projections (Topic 1.1)
All maps are selective in information; map projections inevitably distort spatial relationships in shape, area, distance, and direction.
Map Projections: 2D to represent 3D objects or any method used to represent the world in 2D.
All map projections distort the surface (SADD: scale, area, distance, direction).
Robinson Projection
Benefits: Globe-like “real-like”; accurately shows most sizes, distances, and shapes.
Purpose: Used commonly in schools & atlases.
Distortion/Limitations: Less accurate at the poles; imprecise measurements, cannot be used for navigation.
Mercator Projection
Benefits: Shows true direction; good for navigation; 90° angles & straight lines of longitude & latitude.
Purpose: Best map for nautical use; poles look much larger to help ship captains; most commonly-used (Google Maps uses Mercator).
Distortion/Limitations: Distorts area (Greenland & Africa shouldn’t be about the same size); areas get larger with latitude; size is distorted a lot in the poles; sometimes associated with marginalization of Africa due to being represented as smaller than it is in reality.
Gall-Peters Projection
Benefits: Shows true direction; area is relatively accurate; not much distortion of continents (land size is preserved); superior alternative to Mercator.
Benefits: Shown from the north pole, no country is in center; preserves direction; distances from the center (poles) are preserved.
Purpose: Used by airplane pilots to navigate best routes; used as an emblem on the United Nations flag.
Distortion/Limitations: Distorts parallels of latitude; distorts shape & area; only shows ½ of the earth.
Textbook Pages 38-39
Geographic Data (Topic 1.2)
Data may be gathered in the field by organizations or by individuals.
Geospatial technologies include geographic information systems (GIS), satellite navigation systems, remote sensing, and online mapping and visualization.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Definition: A computer system that scans geographic areas and compiles that data through specific layers depending on the wanted outcome.
Purpose: Helps people visualize and organize spatial patterns and relationships; helps governments and businesses find positive and negative characteristics of areas.
Examples: Tracks deforestation in Nigeria; Identifies certain sites for schools in Kenya.
Spatial information can come from written accounts in the form of field observations, media reports, travel narratives, policy documents, personal interviews, landscape analysis, and photographic interpretation.
Spatial Information Observations
Personal Interviews
Definition: A person that explains his or hers observations of opinions on a subject.
Information Outcomes:Visual Explanations and Economic Patterns.
Field Observations
Definition: The observation of a specific person or group in their environment to gain knowledge about behaviors and activities.
Information Outcomes: Land Use and Patterns in Settlement.
Policy Documents
Definition: Official papers that specifies the rules, guidelines, and regulations of a certain place.
Information Outcomes: Safety Measurements and Accessibility Requirements.
Photographic Interpretation
Definition: The process of studying photographs to identify certain patterns or characteristics of an area.
Information Outcomes: Differentiation of Land Use and Agriculture Practices.
Media Reports
Definition: The communication of ideas and products from the media source to a consumer or listener.
Information Outcomes: Peoples interactions, Issues at all scales and Land Use.
Travel Narratives
Definition: A first hand account that's written in a document. (On the spot documentation).
Information Outcomes: Eye Witness Accounts, Social Patterns and Land Use.
Landscape Analysis
Definition: The process of studying the use of the land and interactions with humans and the environment.
Information Outcomes: Land Use, Agriculture Practices and Infrastructure Sustainability.
Remote Sensing Systems
Definition: Detecting and monitoring physical characteristics of an area using remote-controlled technologies such as satellites or aircraft (No physical Contact).
Purpose: Helps collect information over large areas of land; helps monitor areas of the world that are hard to explore; informs people with fast and accurate information.
Examples: Satellite monitoring and tracking hurricanes; Aircraft scans of an Island.
Satellite Navigation Systems
Definition: A system that uses satellites to provide geospatial positioning on the earth's surface by using longitude and latitude lines for easy visualization..
Purpose: Helps provide a map on your phone to a location; makes it easier for drivers to find the most optimal pathway to a destination.
Examples: Using a GPS to get to your grandma's house; Entering on your phone the quickest path to Costco.
See Textbook Pages 29-34
The Power of Geographic Data (Topic 1.3)
Geospatial and geographical data, including census data and satellite imagery, are used at all scales for personal, business and organizational, and governmental decision making purposes.
Geographic Data: Any data that is associated with a specific location.
Government: Mapping flu activity by state to better prevent infection; Mapping where homelessness is at its highest to determine optimal shelter locations and potential causes for homelessness.
Business: Demographics of an area determine marketing strategies; Insurance companies use floodplain maps to determine insurance rates.
Personal: Crime rates and walkability in a neighborhood determine where people want to live; Housing prices in a neighborhood help you decide how much to sell your house for.
Organizational: Mapping Native American lands; During natural disasters, victims used apps to communicate their location and needs to rescuers (food, water, etc.).
Geospatial Data: Time-based data related to a specific location on Earth’s surface.
Government: Manage programs and evaluate policy outcomes; Integrate diverse data to operationalize solutions.
Business: Allows business to know their influence on community compared to competitors; Helps businesses improve logistics and utilize better delivery routes.
Personal: Identify patterns, assess emerging trends, make data-driven decisions.
Organizational: Empowers organizations to look at value creation in a different light.
Methods of Data Collection: Census Data (demographics, population, income); Remote Sensing (satellite imagery); OpenStreetMap: Map-making network; Acquires data on places around the world.
Textbook Pages: 44-46
Spatial Concepts- Topic 1.4
Spatial concepts include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.
Thinking geographically includes analyzing how people/things are arranged in space- the area between two things on Earth.
Geographers study the distribution, or arrangement, of people and places to analyze how and why we are organized the way we are.
Density: The number of things in a given area (of land); urban areas have a higher density than rural areas.
Pattern: The way things (people) are arranged in a place.
How the place was settled, what the peoples’ needs are.
Some cities weren’t planned and developed more randomly, while others were planned before settlement in patterns like grids.
Location: The position that a point or object occupies on Earth.
Absolute location: The exact location of a point/object; normally expressed by coordinates (Louisville- 38.2527°N, 85.7585°W).
Relative location: Describing where a place is in relation to other places/physical features (Louisville- South of the Ohio River, next to the border with Southern Indiana).
Site: The absolute location/physical characteristics of a place- landforms, climate, resources.
Situation: The way that a place is affected by the surrounding area- transportation systems, political relationships, cultural connections.
All spaces change over time!! The world is not at rest and is constantly changing. The flow (movement) of people/things/information is studied in human geography
Distance Decay: The farther things are from one another, the less they will interact.
The use of technology (phone calls) and faster transportation lessen the effects.
Time-Space Compression: The relative distance between places shrinks because of modern transportation and technology.
Human-Environmental Interaction (Topic 1.5)
Concepts of nature and society include sustainability, natural resources, and land use.
Theories regarding the interaction of the natural environment with human societies have evolved from environmental determinism to possibilism.
Human societies impact the environment, and the environment impacts human societies.
A key concern for human societies is sustainability. Sustainability is focused on providing not only for society today, but also for future generations.
Two key sustainability issues are natural resources and land use. For natural resources- human societies use the Earth’s resources. For example, countries use fossil fuels for transportation, electricity, etc.
For land use- human societies determine how they use land in terms of the purpose (commercial, residential, etc.) along with level of use (intensive or extensive).
Environmental Determinism
The environment determines (decides) characteristics of human society and even the success or failure of the society.
Possibilism
With people anything is possible. Human societies are influenced by their natural environment, but not controlled by it.
Why is possibilism more popular today?
Scale of Analysis (Topic 1.6)
Scales of analysis include global, regional, national, and local.
Patterns and processes at different scales reveal variations in, and different interpretations of, data.
Regional Analysis (Topic 1.7)
REGIONS: Places grouped together by characteristics (Human Constructs).
Regions are often overlapping and may be contested. Geographers use regional analysis to study groups of places.
Formal (Uniform)
Grouped by common environmental, social, political and/or economic attribute.
Religion, Ethnicity, Language, Climate, Political Boundaries
Key Question: What is the shared characteristic(s)?
Ex) At the World Regional scale- European Union because of political beliefs and boundaries . At the national scale there are different formal language regions within the United States, for example where Spanish is the primary language spoken
Functional (Nodal)
Grouped around a central point or NODE
Economic Activities or points(City Hall), World cities, transportation(Airport)
Key Questions :What is the activity? What is the extent of influence of the node?
Ex)At the local scale- Pizza hut delivery zones because pizza hut determines how far it delivers based o of the location of the building producing. At a global scale- New York is a node because it is a world city and has a large influence on cities all over the world with things like fashion etc… so the places being influenced are in a functional region with NY as the node.
Vernacular(Perceptual)
NO PERFECT DEFINITION, Grouped by feelings or attitudes towards the area of land.
Shared history, or interests
Key Questions: How do you feel about these places? What is their history?
Ex) The Midwest because of shared history and people's conceptions about those states. World Regional Scale -The Middle East because it is perceived to exist as a result of religious and ethnic characteristics but countries included are often debated about.
More information on pages 16-19
Factors Impacting Population Distribution (Topic 2.1)
Physical factors (e.g., climate, landforms, water bodies) and human factors (e.g., culture, economics, history, politics) influence the distribution of population.
Factors that illustrate patterns of population distribution vary according to the scale of analysis.
4 Basic Distribution Patterns:
Uniform - Spaced Equally Apart
Linear - Spaced In A Line
Clustered - Organized In Groups Or Around A Point
Random - Organized With No Visible Order.
Factors And Scales of Analysis:
The left map shows Canada at a national scale, where climate affects Distribution greatly (More Uniform).
The right map shows the local scale of Canada where more factors can affect distribution greater than climate (more Clustered).
Quebec can pull or push people to the city due to French influences.
Toronto can pull people to the city due to its major economic development.
Textbook Pages: 63-66
Population Density (Topic 2.1)
The three methods for calculating population density are arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural.
The method used to calculate population density reveals different information about the pressure the population exerts on the land.
There are THREE ways to examine population density.
1) ARITHMETIC DENSITY (most commonly used)-
Measures the total # of people per unit area of land.
You just divide the total number of people by the total land area.
The problem with this method is it doesn’t really give any information regarding whether the population is evenly distributed or not.
The average arithmetic density for the world is 62 people per square kilometer, but rates vary a great deal from place to place. For example, Singapore’s arithmetic density is 8,480 people per km² while Greenland’s is .10 people per km².
2) PHYSIOLOGICAL DENSITY (considered the best density measure)-
Measures the total population per amount of arable (able to be farmed) land.
Physiological density gives more insight into the actual pressure population may be placing on the land.
The arithmetic density of Egypt is 289 people per square mile whereas the physiological density is 3500 people per square mile. Why? Most land in Egypt is not arable so people are clustered along the Nile River and its delta which offers the only arable land.
3) AGRICULTURAL DENSITY (more of a development measure)-
Examines the total number of farmers per unit of arable land.
A higher number typically indicates that a country is less economically developed because it shows that the farmers likely practice subsistence agriculture (agriculture just for consumption by the family and not enough to sell).
Low agricultural densities are often due to mechanization and other agricultural advancements.
Textbook pages 67-68
Consequences of Population Distribution (Topic 2.2)
Population distribution and density affect political, economic, and social processes, including the provision of services such as medical care.
Population distribution and density affect the environment and natural resources; this is known as carrying capacity.
Impacts of population distribution and density-
Political: Clustered population= usually more political influence than in the other areas of the country that are more dispersed, for example urban areas often have more political influence than rural areas
Economic: More people=greater need for jobs; More people=potential for more economic opportunity (which in turn continues to attract more and more people to the area); Clustered population= uneven economic development as seen with urban vs rural areas
Social: Clustered population=more efficient (ex. Response time for emergency services is usually lower because people are closer); Dispersed population=fewer services available; More people= more social services needed
Environment: More people=more strain on resources, especially problematic for nonrenewable resources; More people=more pollution
There is rarely agreement on when an area is near or at carrying capacity. If the number of people were to exceed carrying capacity, it would mean that it is overpopulated.
Thomas Malthus- discussed the issue of overpopulation. 2 choices- preventative checks where society acts BEFORE overpopulation (e.g., anti-natalist policies) or positive checks where society waits and so the environment can’t support that many people resulting in famine, disease, etc.
Textbook pages 70-71
Population Composition (Topic 2.3)
Patterns of age structure and sex ratio vary across different regions and may be mapped and analyzed at different scales.
Population pyramids are used to assess population growth and decline and to predict markets for goods and services.
Population Pyramid: A graph that shows the age-sex distribution of a given population, which helps indicate whether the population is growing rapidly, slowly, or in decline.
Length of each bar is how many males or females are in the age cohort either as a percentage of the population or a number.
Population Pyramids at different scales
Looking at population pyramids at different scales can change what they look like
May provide more accurate data depending on scale of analysis
See pages 74-76, 81-83 in your textbook for more information.
Factors in Population Growth and Decline (Topic 2.4)
Demographic factors that determine a population’s growth and decline are fertility, mortality, and migration.
DEMOGRAPHICS - Data about the structures and characteristics of human populations
FERTILITY - Births
MORTALITY - Deaths
Factors That Influence Fertility and Mortality
Fertility
Development; As a country develops, women have greater access to contraceptives, and they are better educated, decreasing fertility..
Mortality
Development; As a country develops, healthcare and other services are easier to access, increasing life expectancy and decreasing mortality.
MIGRATION
Factors That Influence Immigration and Emigration
Immigration
Development: People will want to go to a more developed country because: Easier access to services, Stable Govt. and Better quality of life.
Emigration
Development: People will want to leave a less developed country because: Sanitation is worse, Unstable Govt. and Lower economic opportunity.
See pages 77-80 in the textbook
Measuring Population Growth and Decline (Topic 2.4)
Geographers use the rate of natural increase and population-doubling time to explain population growth and decline.
Social, cultural, political, and economic factors influence fertility, mortality, and migration rates.
Rate of Natural Increase(RNI) - the speed, or rate, at which a population is growing (A.K.A NIR(natural increase rate))
RNI=CBR(crudebirthrate)−CDR(crudedeathrate)
Does not factor in migration
Doubling Time(DT) - the estimated # of years a growing population will take to double
DT=70/RNI(rateofnaturalincrease)
DT changes over time; changes with RNI
< RNI = > DT→INVERSE relationship
Factors Influencing Population Change
Economic
Better access to healthcare - CDR falls
Improved prenatal care - IMR falls
Advancements in medicine - CDR falls
Hard economic times - CBR falls
Type of economy: Ex. agricultural economies have larger avg. family sizes to help on the farm
Political
Peace - rapid population growth (CBR increase): Ex. baby boom after WWII
War - increased CDR, decreased CBR
Government Childbirth limitations: ↳Pro natalist policies; Incentives/encouraging couples for having children ↳Anti natalist policies; Ex. China’s former One Child Policy (ended in 2016), limited families to a single child
Environmental
Natural disasters - increased CDR; Ex. Turkey-Syria Earthquake in 2023 killed over 50,000 individuals; leads to displacement which also increases the CDR
Famine - increased CDR
Disease - increased CDR
Social/Cultural
Family planning - education + contraceptive options = lower CBR
Religion - more conservative practices may include the banning of contraceptives
Women’s roles in society ↳ Less rights, less education, expectations to raise large family = > CBR ↳ More rights, better access to education, more women in the workforce = < CBR
See textbook pages 87-91
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) (Topic 2.5)
Essential Knowledge: The demographic transition model can be used to explain population change over time. The epidemiological transition explains causes of changing death.
MALTHUSIAN THEORY (TOPIC 2.6)
THOMAS MALTHUS
English Economist
Population growth leads to poverty and misery.
Environmental Determinist
Did not consider technological advancements
Positive Checks- Reduce population; famine, disease, etc.
Preventative Checks-Actions to prevent population growth; postponing marriage, less sex, etc.
NED-MALTHUSIANS
People who share similar ideas to Malthus
World space and resources were limited, but the environment was not the determinant.
Carrying Capacity- The maximum number of people that can live on Earth comfortably
Want strict population control
ESTER BOSERUP
Danish Economist & Main Critic of Malthus
As the population grows, there would be more technologies to produce more food.
Possibilist
Argued food production could be increased
CORNUCOPIANS
”Necessity is the mother of invention.”
Cornucopian Theory- Humans can innovate ways to expand the food supply
People are a valuable resource.
Population Policies (Topic 2.7)
Types of population policies include those that promote or discourage population growth, such as pronatalist, antinatalist, and immigration policies.
Anti-natalist policies: when a country's birth rate and TFR is high, so people are discouraged from having children
Examples of policies (typically found in LDCs in stages 2-3 of the DTM)
Paying extra taxes whenever you have a child
Increased education of women
More education and availability of contraceptives
Goal of policies- lessen risk of overusing resources, schooling, jobs and services
Occurs mainly in periphery or semi- periphery countries
Pro-natalist policies: when a country has low birth rates and fertility rates, so people are encouraged to have children
Examples of policies (typically found in MDCs in stages 4-5 of the DTM)
Free or cheap childcare
When mothers are on maternity leave, they are still paid
baby items are less expensive (diapers, baby food, etc)
Goal of Policies- having enough workers to support the economy and take care of elderly
Often happens in core countries
Immigration policies- government policies that determine if people can migrate into their country or not
A country may encourage immigration to help balance out a negative RNI
Effects of population policies
The policy can work too well- the country will instead have to deal with overpopulation from pro- natalist policies or low population from anti natalist policies
More workers (from pro-natalist policies or immigration allowed)
More available resources and jobs (from anti-natalist or limited immigration policies)
There's always more, but APHG is about applying the knowledge rather than just memorizing examples
Textbook pages: 99-102 and 128-130
Women & Demographic Change (Topic 2.8)
Changing social values and access to education, employment, health care, and contraception have reduced fertility rates in most parts of the world.
Changing social, economic, and political roles for females have influenced patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration, as illustrated by Ravenstein’s laws of migration.
Education
Women have unequal access to education (schooling) compared to men
Women contribute to their economy & households because of more jobs → earn more
Women participating in important roles (in politics and the economy) & access to contraceptives = less kids
Migration (Ravenstein’s Laws)
Women tend to migrate for economic & marriage reasons
According to Ravenstein’s Laws;
Women moved short distances
Women tended to only move within their country
Fertility RatesWomen in the periphery have more kids from lack of contraceptives & family planning, or due to their religion
Women participating in important roles (in politics and the economy) & access to contraceptives = less kids
Political Roles Globally, women participate way less in governmental/leadership roles; Women have less representation in politics; Only 10 countries have a women head of state, and 13 have a women head of government.
Social Factors IMR high in periphery, due to less access to healthcare, doctors & medicineGender roles hinder womens’ social status
Economic Roles
Most agricultural workers in LDCs are women
Women in MDCs have many more opportunities (jobs, education, loans) which boosts economic & social development in the country
There is a uneven global wage gap between women and men called the Gender Wage Gap Women in LDCs are widely employed in the informal job sector, as they often can’t get a job the formal sector
Aging Populations (Topic 2.9)
Population aging is determined by birth and death rates and life expectancy.
An aging population has political, social, and economic consequences, including the dependency ratio.
Aging Population: Number of elderly people present in a country, region, city, etc.
Reasons for Increased Aging Population:
Healthier lifestyles adopted by families; decreased birth rate due to aging pop. going up and
Improved/better health care available for people; more women in the workforce.
Less rates of infectious/degenerative diseases in countries
Causes of Migration (Topic 2.10)
Migration is commonly divided into push factors and pull factors.
Push/pull factors and intervening opportunities/obstacles can be cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, or political.
PUSH (negative cause LEAVE) PULL (positive cause ATTRACT)
ECONOMIC: no jobs/low wages and more job opportunities/higher pay
SOCIAL
Demographic; Gender imbalance/Overcrowded and good healthcare/education
Cultural: Discrimination/persecution and Accepting of different people
POLITICAL: Political instability/war andMore rights for ppl//freedom/government stability
ENVIRONMENTAL: Drought/intense heat and Desirable climate/fertile soil
Textbook pages 112-114
Forced and Voluntary Migration (Topic 2.11)
Forced migrations include slavery and events that produce refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers.
Types of voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain, step, guest worker, and rural-to-urban.
Forced Migration/Involuntary Migration- Migrants must leave because they face violence, persecution, or other life-threatening situations.
Examples of forced migration: Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Internally Displaced Persons.
REFUGEE is granted refugee status before they enter their destination country whereas an ASYLUM SEEKER enters the destination country and then seeks to establish refugee status.
INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS (IDPs) also flee their home due to safety, but they flee within their home country.
Voluntary Migration- Migrants must leave because they feel like they can better their situation (economically, socially, personally, etc.)
TRANSNATIONAL migration TRANSNATIONAL migration. o Many transnational migrants participate in CHAIN MIGRATION, MEANING THAT THEY ARE FOLLOWING FAMILY. o Some transnational migrants participate in STEP MIGRATION, meaning instead of moving a long distance all at once they will complete a series of moves leading to their final destination.
TRANSHUMANCE is a less common type of voluntary migration and is usually internal.