Salt, Starter Cultures, Coagulants & Other Ingredients in Cheesemaking

Salt in Cheesemaking

Importance of Salt

  • De-iodinized Salt: Essential for ripened cheeses because iodine can interfere with the ripening process and microbial activity. Note that not all countries add iodine to their salt.
  • Salt Specification:
    • Particle size is a crucial factor.
    • The presence or absence of impurities matters.
    • Discuss the impact of anti-caking agents.
  • Dry Storage: Keep salt in a dry place to prevent clumping and ensure accurate measurement.
    • Damp salt samples should be dried in an oven to demonstrate water weight.
    • Drying wet salt can be particularly important for high-moisture soft cheeses to control moisture content and microbial activity.
  • Coarse vs. Fine Salt: Compare the effects of using coarse and fine salt in cheesemaking; fine salt dissolves more quickly and provides more uniform distribution.
  • Sodium Replacement:
    • Explain the effect of using a Sodium replacement salt such as Potassium Chloride, referencing the work of McMahon et al.
    • The relative permeability of the bacterial cell wall may allow pathogens to regain cell turgor, which can impact their survival.

Brine Tank Preparation

  • Ingredients for Fresh Brine:
    • Salt.
    • Calcium Chloride: to balance calcium levels and prevent slimy rind defect.
    • Weak Acid: to balance pH.

Regulation of Salt in Canada

  • Regulatory Framework:
    • Salt and salt substitutes are governed by the Safe Food for Canadians Act (SFCA), Safe Food for Canadians Regulations (SFCR), Food and Drugs Act (FDA), and Food and Drug Regulations (FDR).
    • Intraprovincially sold salt is subject to labeling requirements under the FDA and FDR, along with specific SFCA and SFCR requirements.
    • Provincial regulations may impose additional labeling requirements.
  • Prescribed Standard for Salt:
    • Other than crude rock salt, salt has a prescribed standard in Part B Division 17 of the FDR [B.17.001,FDR][B.17.001, FDR].
  • Salt Substitutes:
    • Salt substitutes lack a prescribed standard and typically consist of sodium-reduced or sodium-free alternatives, often containing potassium chloride.
    • Table salt substitutes can contain added iodine [D.03.002(1),Item17,FDR][D.03.002(1), Item 17, FDR].
  • Iodine Content:
    • Salt must contain 0.01% potassium iodide to help prevent goiter [B.17.003,FDR][B.17.003, FDR].
    • Salt products not meeting this requirement (e.g., natural mineral rock salt with 98.32% sodium chloride without 0.01% potassium iodide) cannot be sold for general household use.
    • Acceptable common names include "salt for pickling" or "salt for further processing."
  • Ingredients Listing:
    • All ingredients, including iodide, must appear in the list of ingredients of table salt.
    • When used as an ingredient in food manufacturing, salt components are exempt from the ingredient list [B.01.009(1),item20,FDR][B.01.009(1), item 20, FDR].
  • Sea Salt vs. Sea Salts:
    • "Sea salt" refers to processed salt from an existing sea and must meet the standard for salt if intended for table or general household use. Salt from a mine cannot be labeled as "sea salt."
    • "Sea salts" (plural) refer to a mixture of sodium chloride and other mineral salts, not required to be iodized Made from sea water.
    • The component exemption under B.01.009(1) applies to "sea salt" (singular) when used as an ingredient.
    • "Sea salts" (plural) requires a complete component listing, as it is not exempt under section B.01.009 of the FDR.

Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870)

*Regulations are current to 2020-11-02 and last amended on 2020-09-28.

  • Salt Composition:
    • Salt, excluding crude rock salt, must be crystalline sodium chloride.
  • Permitted Additives:
    • Anti-caking agents: Calcium aluminum silicate, calcium phosphate tribasic, calcium silicate, calcium stearate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium silicate, magnesium stearate, silicon dioxide, and sodium aluminum silicate; total amount not to exceed 1% (2% for fine-grained salt).
    • Propylene glycol: up to 0.035%.
    • Sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate: up to 13 parts per million (calculated as anhydrous sodium ferrocyanide).
  • Maximum Limits of Other Ingredients:
    • Calcium sulphate or potassium chloride: 1.4% (singly or in combination).
    • Anhydrous sodium ferrocyanide: 13 parts per million (when added as sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate in dendritic crystal production).
    • Polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate: 10 parts per million (in coarse crystal salt production).
    • Sodium alginate: 15 parts per million (in coarse crystal salt production).
    • Other ingredients: 0.1%.
    • Total level of sodium ferrocyanide decahydrate (whether as anti-caking agent or adjuvant) must not exceed 13 parts per million (calculated as anhydrous sodium ferrocyanide).

British Salt - Product Specification

  • Standard Grade Pure Dried Vacuum Salt
  • Conforms to BS998:1990 "Vacuum Salt for Food Use"
  • Conforms to Regulation EC 1129/2011
  • Complies with EU Food safety legislation and is suitable for food use.
    • Moisture: Max 0.2% as H2OH_2O
    • Sodium Sulphate: Max 3000 mg/kg as Na<em>2SO</em>4Na<em>2SO</em>4
    • Calcium: Max 100 mg/kg as Ca
    • Magnesium: Max 100 mg/kg as Mg
    • Arsenic: Max 0.5 mg/kg as As
    • Cadmium: Max 0.2 mg/kg as Cd
    • Copper: Max 2 mg/kg as Cu
    • Iron: Max 10 mg/kg as Fe
    • Lead: Max 1 mg/kg as Pb
    • Mercury: Max 0.05 mg/kg as Hg
    • Anti-caking agent: Max 11.5 mg/kg as [Fe(CN)6]4−[Fe(CN)_6]^{4-}(E535)*
    • Assay (dry basis): Min 99.6 % as NaCl
  • Physical Analysis British Salt Specification (Not stipulated in BS998:1990)
    • +1400μm: Max 0 % retained
    • +850μm: Max 8 % retained
    • +425μm: Max 56 % retained
    • +300μm: Max 91 % retained
    • Bulk Density: 1.22 to 1.32 g cm-

Research on Iodine Content

  • Assessment of Iodine Content in Three Different Brands of Commercial Sodium
    Chloride at Retailer and Consumer Level. (2016)

Growth of NSLAB during Cheese Ripening

  • McMahon et al (2014) Effect of sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium salt cations on pH, proteolysis, organic acids, and microbial populations during storage of full-fat Cheddar cheese.
  • Control: 1.74% salt, Moisture 34.9%
  • SIM: 4.75% Months

Brining (Gouda)

  • Salt concentration: 21% w/v / 20°Be / Sal° 80
  • Calcium: 0.2-0.3% w/w
  • pH: 5.0-5.3
  • Temperature: 10-13°C
  • Time: Allow 6-8 hours/Kg

Salt Sensitivity of LAB Cultures

  • Culture 50% Inhibition 100% Inhibition
  • Flora Danica 3.7% SIM 6.0% SIM
  • CHN-11 3.5% SIM 5.8% SIM

Good Manufacturing Practices - Salting

  • Risks to Safeguard:
    • Chemical contamination by pollutants (copper, lead, mercury, cadmium).
    • Physical contamination by visible impurities.
    • Microbiological contamination in brines.
  • Avoiding Contamination:
    • Use good quality, food-grade salt.
    • Visual inspection for physical hazards; discard if glass or metal contamination is suspected.
    • Microbiological hazards (in brine) may be avoided by:
      • Use of potable water.
      • Storing the brine in a clean container, possibly covered.
      • Maintaining appropriate temperature.
      • Addition of salt and stirring after each use.
      • Regular removal of suspended particles using diatomaceous earth filters.
      • Complete or partial brine renewal.
  • Pasteurization of Brine:
    • Not recommended as it can eliminate beneficial ripening organisms.
    • May not be appropriate for all cheese technologies.
    • Maintain a salt concentration ≥19.5° Baumé (equivalent to 21% w/v) to limit the growth of the most halotolerant pathogens (Listeria and Coagulase Positive Staphylococci).
    • Monitor brine pH to ensure it conforms to expected values.

Brine - Sodium Chloride Table for 60°F (15.5°C)

  • Provides detailed data on brine strength, specific gravity, Baume, NaCl percentage, pound/gallon brine, gram/liter brine and freezing point.

Factors to Consider when Purchasing Food Ingredients

  • Specification
  • Delivery arrives in good condition
  • Possibility of Chemical or physical contamination in transit.
  • Possibility of physical hazards (for example - glass shards)

Factors to Consider when Storing Food Ingredients

  • Temperature
  • Humidity or Moisture
  • Chemical Hazards
  • Physical Hazards
  • Microbiological Hazards

Reading Assignments

  • American Farmstead Cheesemaking by Paul Kindstedt (2005) (p113-121)
  • "Salting" on University of Guelph Website
  • Influence of Salting Method on the Chemical and Texture Characteristics of Ovine Halloumi Cheese. Foods. 8. 10.3390/foods8070232.

Reading for Week 12

  • Kapoor, R. Metzger, L.E. (2008) Process Cheese: Scientific and Technological Aspects- A Review. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. Vol. 7
  • Sour Skimmed-milk Cheeses by Fosså, Ove and Heinzelmann, Ursula (p666-667) in The Oxford Companion to Cheese (2016). Donnelly C.W. (Ed) Oxford University Press.
  • Tamime, A.Y. (2011) Processed Cheese and Analogues. John Wiley.

Evaluation Due by Week 12

  • Written assignment of approximately 4 pages, linking Cl006-Cl008 and CL002
  • Describe and explain your selection of cultures, rennet, and other ingredients for at least two different cheeses.
  • Provide details of the specification or product and the required processing parameters or product composition and use.
  • Suggestions:
    • Sweet-flavored cheddar, suitable for vegetarians.
    • Gouda made with calf rennet and suitable for individuals with egg intolerance.
    • Emmental or Gruyere suitable for vegetarians and made without genetically modified ingredients.
    • Goats Milk Brie-style cheese

Course Outcomes

  1. Describe starter cultures in terms of growth temperature, acidification speed, and gas and aroma production.
  2. Recommend appropriate starter cultures for different types of cheese and dairy products.
  3. Demonstrate or explain the steps involved in using bulk starter cultures and DVI/DVS starter cultures.
  4. Explain the role of lactic acid bacteria in ensuring the quality and safety of dairy products.
  5. Explain the issues posed by bacteriophage in the dairy and the main methods by which they are controlled.
  6. Recall the main types of coagulant (acidification, animal rennet, microbial rennet, fermentation-derived chymosin, vegetable rennet, rennet paste) and explain the relative merits of each, including their function during the ripening of cheese.
  7. Explain the role of flavor adjuncts, yeasts, molds, and bacteria other than LAB in the ripening of cheese.
  8. Recall the main functional ingredients in dairy products, other than cultures or coagulants, including additives, colorants, and enzymes. Explain the technological reasons for their use as well as the regulatory limits applicable to their use.