Conflict and American Independence (1754-1800) Study Guide
Pre-Revolutionary Foundations and the Albany Plan (1754)
Context of Loyalty: In , American colonists largely viewed themselves as English subjects. There was almost universal loyalty to the British Empire, with very few imagining a future of rebellion.
The Albany Plan of Union: * Delegation: Representatives from colonies gathered in Albany, New York. * Authorship: Developed by Benjamin Franklin, a prominent statesman. * Provisions: The plan proposed an intercolonial government and a central system for collecting taxes specifically for the defense of the colonies. * Diplomacy: Franklin attempted to negotiate a treaty with the Iroquois during the meeting. * Failure and Rejection: The plan failed to gain approval from a single colonial legislature. Rejection was rooted in the colonists' refusal to relinquish their right to self-taxation and their lack of readiness to unite under a single legislative body. * Publicity and Propaganda: Franklin expressed his frustration through one of the first American political cartoons: a drawing of a snake broken into pieces with the caption "Join or Die."
The Seven Years' War (1754–1763)
Naming and Confusion: * The war lasted for years (–). * French and Indian War: The colonial name for the conflict, derived from the enemies they fought (the French and Native Americans were allied, not opposing each other). * Seven Years' War: The British name for the conflict. * Global Context: It was one of several "wars for empire" between Britain and France and is arguably considered the first world war.
Causes of the War: * Colonial Expansion: Settlers moving into the Ohio Valley directly competed with French interests. * Strategic Fortifications: The French built fortified outposts to protect the profitable fur trade and maintain regional control. * European Struggles: Power struggles involving Spain, Austria, Sweden, and Prussia contributed to the broader conflict.
Military Development: * George Washington's Role: Leading a colonial contingent, Washington attacked a French outpost but was defeated. Despite his surrender, he was welcomed as a hero in Virginia. * Alliances: Native Americans generally allied with the French, who traditionally had better relations with them and were expected to win based on early English military performance.
Resolution and Impact: * British Dominance: England emerged as the undisputed colonial power on the continent. * Treaty of Paris (): England gained control of Canada and almost the entire region east of the Mississippi Valley. * Mercantilism: France prioritized keeping two small but highly profitable sugar islands over the vast landmass of Canada. * William Pitt: The English Prime Minister during the war encouraged colonial participation by promising pay and autonomy, fostering an early sense of intercolonial unity.
Post-War Native American Relations and the Proclamation of 1763
Shifting Power Dynamics: The English victory removed the ability of Native Americans to play the French and English against each other for leverage.
English Conduct: Unlike French fur trappers who did not settle permanently, English expansion was disruptive. Post-war, the English raised prices on goods (monopolizing trade) and stopped paying rent on western forts.
Pontiac’s Rebellion (): * Uprising: Ottawa war chief Pontiac rallied tribes in the Ohio Valley to attack colonial outposts. * British Response: To quell the rebellion, the British utilized germ warfare by distributing smallpox-infected blankets to the Ottawa. * The Paxton Boys: In response to the attacks, a group of Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania murdered members of the Susquehannock tribe.
The Proclamation of 1763: * Directive: The British government forbade settlement west of the rivers running through the Appalachians. * Failure and Sentiment: It came too late, as many settlers had already moved west. It agitated colonists who saw it as unwarranted British interference. * Significance: It marks the end of "salutary neglect" and is considered the first step on the "road to revolution." It established the pattern of demarcating "Indian Territory," later seen in the Indian Removal Act of .
The Scots-Irish: An ethnic group of Protestant settlers from Ireland (originally Scottish) who settled in the Appalachians and were known for early conflicts with Indigenous tribes.
Economic Tensions: The Sugar, Currency, and Stamp Acts
War Debt: The Seven Years' War left Britain with massive debt. King George III and Prime Minister George Grenville believed colonists should help pay because their tax burden was lighter than that of citizens in England.
Colonial Perspective: Colonists felt their contribution of soldiers fulfilled their obligation to the Empire.
The Sugar Act (): * Aimed at deterring molasses smugglers and raising revenue. * While it lowered the duty on molasses, it increased enforcement. * Vice-Admiralty Courts: Violators were tried by a single judge without a jury, seen as a violation of the rights of Englishmen.
The Currency Act: Forbade the colonies to issue paper money.
The Stamp Act (): * Revenue Raise: Specifically designed to raise money, stripping the tradition of self-taxation. * Broad Scope: Covered all legal documents and licenses, affecting the literate and argumentative lawyer class. * Internal Tax: It was a tax on goods produced within the colonies.
Colonial Reaction: * James Otis: Authored The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, arguing "No taxation without representation." * Virtual Representation: The British argued that Parliament represented all subjects regardless of who voted; the colonists rejected this, demanding the right to determine their own taxes. * Patrick Henry: Drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves. * Sons of Liberty: Protest groups formed; their opposition was so effective that no duty collectors were willing to work by the law's effective date. * Repeal (): Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but simultaneously passed the Declaratory Act, asserting the right to tax and legislate for the colonies in all cases.
The Townshend Acts and Tactics of Resistance
Charles Townshend: Minister of the Exchequer who introduced the eponymous acts.
Provisions of the Townshend Acts: * Taxed goods imported directly from Britain. * Earmarked tax collection for the salaries of government officials (removing colonial assembly control over pay). * Created more vice-admiralty courts and new enforcement offices. * Suspended the New York legislature for non-compliance. * Writs of Assistance: Licenses allowing the British to search any location for smuggled goods.
Massachusetts Circular Letter (): Written by Samuel Adams, urging all colonies to protest the measures in unison.
Nonconsumption and Nonimportation: * Boycotts: Effective because they harmed British merchants. * Role of Women: Essential in replacing British imports with "American" or New England products like linen and tea. * Enforcement: Patriot leaders used social pressure (shaming importers in newspapers like William Jackson of the Brazen Head) or physical intimidation (tar-and-feathering). * Result: British imports dropped by by , leading to the repeal of the Townshend duties (except for the tea tax).
The Boston Massacre and the Period of De-escalation
Military Presence: Under the Quartering Act of , British soldiers were stationed in Boston (a city of people). Soldiers competed with locals for off-hour jobs.
The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770): * A mob pelted soldiers with rock-filled snowballs. * Soldiers fired into the crowd, killing people. * Propaganda: Interpreted as a slaughter of innocent bystanders. * Legal Defense: John Adams defended the soldiers in court to ensure a fair trial.
Committees of Correspondence (): Groups formed to trade ideas and inform the political mood across colonies.
Mercy Otis Warren: Friend of Abigail Adams and Martha Washington who published pamphlets calling for revolution.
John Dickinson: Wrote Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania to unite against the Townshend Acts.
The Boston Tea Party and the Coercive Acts
Tea Act (): Granted the East India Tea Company a monopoly on the colonial tea trade and a portion of new duties. Though tea became cheaper, colonists viewed it as another illegal tax.
The Incident (December 16, 1773): The Sons of Liberty, disguised as Mohawks, boarded a ship and dumped approximately worth of tea into Boston Harbor over the course of hours.
The Coercive (Intolerable) Acts: * Closed Boston Harbor to all but food and firewood until the tea was paid for. * Tightened control over the Massachusetts government and courts. * Renewed, stricter Quartering Act forcing soldiers into civilian homes.
The Quebec Act: Granted liberties to Catholics and extended Quebec’s boundaries, further hindering westward expansion for Protestant colonists.
Formalizing Resistance: Continental Congresses
First Continental Congress (): * Delegates from all colonies except Georgia convened. * Included conservatives like Joseph Galloway and radicals like Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry. * Formed the Continental Association to enforce a total boycott through committees of observation. * Defined limited parameters for justified Parliamentary interference while claiming all other spheres for colonial self-rule.
Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 1775): * English troops sent to Concord to confiscate weapons and arrest ringleaders. * Lexington: Confrontation with minutemen; casualties including dead. * Concord: Colonists forced the British redcoats to retreat. Known as "the shot heard ‘round the world."
Second Continental Congress: * Established the Continental Army. * Printed money and created government offices. * Selected George Washington as leader (chosen for his popularity and Southern roots). * Olive Branch Petition (): A last-ditch attempt at reconciliation by John Dickinson; rejected by King George III.
Independence and the Revolutionary War
Common Sense (January 1776): Written by Thomas Paine in plain language. Sold over copies in months. Argued for independence and the superiority of republicanism over monarchy.
Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776): * Authored by Thomas Jefferson. * Reflected Enlightenment ideals (John Locke: natural rights, merit of government by consent). * Enumerated grievances against George III (taxation without representation, lack of trial by jury, keeping standing armies).
The Battle of Saratoga (October 17, 1777): * A turning point that secured a formal alliance with France. * The French provided military advisers, weapons, and financial aid.
The Battle of Yorktown (October 1781): * The symbolic end of the war. * General Cornwallis was surrounded by French naval forces and Washington’s land troops.
Treaty of Paris (): Granted the U.S. independence and generous territorial rights.
The Articles of Confederation and the Northwest Ordinance
Structure: The first national constitution (), intentionally creating a weak central government to avoid tyranny.
Limitations of the Articles: * No power to raise an army. * No power to enforce taxation or a military draft. * No power to regulate interstate or international trade. * No executive or judicial branch. * One vote per state; passing laws required agreement; amendments required unanimous approval.
Northwest Ordinance of 1787: * The Articles' greatest success. * Governed the sale of land and defined steps to statehood. * Contained a bill of rights (trial by jury, religious freedom). * Abolished slavery in the Northwest territories.
Shays’s Rebellion (): Daniel Shays led farmers to attack courthouses to stop farm foreclosures. The national government’s inability to respond highlighted the Articles' weaknesses.
The Constitutional Convention (1787)
Meeting: Originally intended only to revise the Articles. white, wealthy delegates gathered in Philadelphia.
Plans for Government: * Virginia Plan: Bicameral legislature based on population; proposed by James Madison; called for three branches and checks and balances. * New Jersey Plan: Called for equal representation for each state. * The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Blended the plans with a House of Representatives (population-based) and a Senate (equal representation).
The Three-Fifths Compromise: Counted enslaved persons as of a person for proportional representation in Congress.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists: * Anti-Federalists feared an all-powerful government and demanded a Bill of Rights. * Federalists argued for ratification via The Federalist Papers (Hamilton, Madison, Jay). * Bill of Rights (): The first amendments protecting individual liberties (speech, religion, due process, etc.).
The Washington Presidency (1789–1797)
Precedents: Created the Cabinet; determined to use the veto only for unconstitutional bills; established the -term limit.
Financial Plan (Hamilton): * National Bank: Debated between strict constructionists (Jefferson/Madison—only granted powers allowed) and loose constructionists (Hamilton—implied powers). * Debt Assumption: Federal government took over state debts, favoring Northern banks. * Capital Location: Agreed to move the capital to Washington, D.C., in to appease Southerners.
Foreign Policy: * Neutrality Proclamation: Declared U.S. neutrality during the French Revolution/English conflict. * Farewell Address: Warned against permanent alliances ("foreign entanglements"), political parties, and sectional divisions.
Treaties: * Jay’s Treaty (): Evacuation of British from Northwest Territory; considered a low point due to many concessions; established executive privilege. * Pinckney’s Treaty (Treaty of San Lorenzo): Negotiation with Spain for use of the Mississippi River and removal of Spanish forts; considered a high point.
Social Shifts and the Adams Presidency
Republican Motherhood: Emerged in the early s; women’s role was to raise virtuous, educated sons to be good citizens. Education for women was improved but remained in service to the family.
The Adams Presidency: * XYZ Affair: French officials demanded bribes to begin negotiations; led to anti-French sentiment. * Quasi-War: Undeclared naval skirmishes with France. * Alien and Sedition Acts: Targeted immigrants (Alien Act) and penalized antigovernment speech (Sedition Act). * Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Jefferson and Madison argued that states had the right to "nullify" unconstitutional federal laws.
Questions & Discussion
Question 1: The Albany Plan of Union failed because… * Response: None of the colonies was willing to share tax-collecting powers with a national entity.
Question 2: Why did colonists object to Parliament’s policies after the Seven Years' War? * Response: Mercantilist restrictions, violation of rights as Englishmen, and resentment of quartering troops (Exception: they did not actually want representation in the distant London Parliament, but rather the right to tax themselves).
Question 3: What was the significance of the Boston Massacre? * Response: The Quartering Act created the underlying tension; soldiers were represented by John Adams in a fair trial.
Question 4: Significance of the Stamp Act Congress? * Response: It represented the first major step toward colonial unity against Britain.
Question 5: How did Shays’s Rebellion affect U.S. History? * Response: It demonstrated the total weakness of the federal government under the Articles of Confederation.
Question 6: What powers did the government have under the Articles of Confederation? * Response: The power to negotiate treaties (but not the power to collect taxes or supersede state law).
Question 7: What is a profile of a Democratic-Republican? * Response: A yeoman farmer from South Carolina who sympathized with France and favored strict construction.
Question 8: What was NOT an immediate consequence of the Revolution? * Response: Expanded rights for women to hold property did not occur immediately; this was a later development.