Untitled Flashcards Set

The Election of 1800 . Decline of the Federalists: Federalists, led by President John Adams, lost popularity due to the Alien and Sedition Acts and new taxes for a potential war with France. Political Parties: ○ Federalists: Advocated for a strong national government, leaned towards Britain in European affairs, and supported tariffs to protect Northern industry. ○ Democratic-Republicans: Emphasized states' rights, leaned towards France, and supported lower tariffs to encourage trade. ● Election Results: Thomas Jefferson won! ● Peaceful Revolution: The transition of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans was peaceful, demonstrating the stability and resilience of the U.S. political system. ○ Sometimes called Revolution of 1800 because there was a peaceful transition of power between political parties. Jefferson’s Presidency ● Policies: ○ Maintaining Federalist Policies: Retained the national bank and debt-repayment plan. ○ Limited Government: Reduced military size, eliminated federal jobs, repealed excise taxes, and lowered national debt. ○ Party Loyalty: Appointed only Democratic-Republicans to his cabinet to avoid internal conflicts. The Election of 1800 ● Decline of the Federalists: Federalists, led by President John Adams, lost popularity due to the Alien and Sedition Acts and new taxes for a potential war with France. 57 4.2 - The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson The Louisiana Purchase ● Background: ○ French Control: Napoleon Bonaparte regained the Louisiana Territory from Spain with plans to restore the French empire in the Americas. ○ Napoleon's Change of Plans: Decided to sell the territory to focus on European conflicts and after the loss of Santo Domingo to a slave rebellion led by Toussaint Louverture. ● U.S. Interests: ○ Economic and Strategic Concerns: Western settlers relied on the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans for trade. ○ Negotiations: Jefferson authorized diplomats to offer $10 million for New Orleans and adjacent territory. The French offered the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. ● Constitutional Issues: ○ Jefferson's Dilemma: As a strict constructionist, Jefferson was concerned that the Constitution did not explicitly authorize the purchase of foreign land. ○ Treaty Power: Justified the purchase as part of the president’s treaty-making powers. The Senate ratified the purchase despite Federalist opposition. ● Consequences: ○ Expansion: Doubled the size of the U.S. and removed European presence from its borders. ○ Agrarian Vision: Supported Jefferson's vision of a nation of independent farmers. ○ Political Impact: Increased Jefferson’s popularity and showed the Federalists’ regional limitations. 58 4.2 - The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson Lewis and Clark Expedition ● Purpose: Commissioned by Jefferson to explore the newly acquired Louisiana Territory and beyond. ● Achievements: ○ Geographic and Scientific Knowledge: Mapped the region, documented new species, and established stronger U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory. ○ Relations with American Indians: Improved understanding and relations with various tribes. ○ Practical Benefits: Provided valuable information and routes for future settlers and fur trappers. Judicial Impeachments ● Jefferson’s Efforts: Jefferson sought to overturn Federalist influence by suspending the Alien and Sedition Acts and releasing those jailed under them. ● Outcome: While the campaign largely failed, it pressured judges to be more cautious and less partisan. Jefferson’s Reelection (1804) ● Victory: Jefferson won reelection overwhelmingly, securing all but 14 of 176 electoral votes. Aaron Burr ● Vice Presidency: Not renominated in 1804, leading to controversial actions. ● Federalist Conspiracy: ○ Plan: Burr conspired with radical Federalists to secede New York and New England from the Union. ○ Failure: Defeated in the New York governorship election, leading to the conspiracy's collapse. ● Duel with Hamilton: Burr killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, resulting in his political downfall and Hamilton’s death. ● Trial for Treason: ○ Mexico Plot: Burr planned to take Mexico from Spain and unite it with Louisiana. ○ Arrest and Trial: Jefferson ordered Burr’s arrest. Acquitted due to Chief Justice John Marshall's narrow definition of treason and lack of evidence. 59 4.2 - The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson John Marshall’s Supreme Court and Federal Power ● Influence: Chief Justice John Marshall favored a strong central government and property rights, often opposing states’ rights advocates. ● Tenure: Appointed by John Adams, served for 34 years, shaping the Supreme Court's role and interpretation of the Constitution. John Marshall ● Federalist Judge: Despite being Jefferson’s cousin, he often ruled in ways that frustrated Jefferson. ● Legacy: Marshall’s decisions reinforced the idea of a strong federal government with flexible powers, influencing even Democratic-Republican appointed justices. Influential Cases John Marshall’s tenure as Chief Justice resulted in several landmark decisions that defined the balance of power between the federal government and the states. Note: Underlined cases are the ones you guranteed must know. ● Marbury v. Madison (1803): ○ Context: President John Adams made several "midnight appointments" of Federalist judges, but their commissions were not delivered before Jefferson took office. Jefferson ordered James Madison to withhold the commissions. ○ Ruling: Marshall declared that Marbury had a right to his commission based on the Judiciary Act of 1789. However, he also ruled that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, thus establishing the principle of judicial review. ○ Significance: This case established the Supreme Court's authority to declare acts of Congress or the President unconstitutional, reinforcing the system of checks and balances. ● Fletcher v. Peck (1810): ○ Context: Involved land fraud in Georgia. ○ Ruling: Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract. ○ Significance: First time the Supreme Court declared a state law unconstitutional, reinforcing the sanctity of contracts. ● Martin v. Hunter’s Lease (1816): ○ Ruling: Established that the Supreme Court had jurisdiction over state courts in cases involving constitutional rights. 60 4.2 - The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson ● Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): ○ Context: New Hampshire law attempted to change Dartmouth College from a private to a public institution. ○ Ruling: Marshall ruled that the state law was unconstitutional, stating that a contract for a private corporation could not be altered by the state. ○ Significance: Strengthened the protection of private contracts against state interference. ● McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): ○ Context: Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States. ○ Ruling: Marshall ruled that a state could not tax a federal institution, citing "the power to tax is the power to destroy" and that federal laws are supreme over state laws. ○ Significance: Affirmed the constitutionality of the national bank using the doctrine of implied powers. ● Cohens v. Virginia (1821): ○ Context: The Cohen brothers were convicted of illegally selling lottery tickets in Virginia. ○ Ruling: While upholding the conviction, the Supreme Court established its authority to review state court decisions involving federal powers. ○ Significance: Reinforced the Supreme Court's power to review state court decisions in matters concerning federal authority. ● Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): ○ Context: Involved a New York state law granting a monopoly to a steamboat company that conflicted with a federal charter. ○ Ruling: Marshall ruled that the New York monopoly was unconstitutional. ○ Significance: Established the federal government's broad control over interstate commerce. The Election of 1808 ● Jefferson’s Precedent: Jefferson retired after two terms, supporting Secretary of State James Madison for president. ● Outcome: Madison won a majority of electoral votes, defeating both Democratic-Republican and Federalist candidates. 61 4.3 - Politics and Regional Interests The Era of Good Feelings ● Overview: The election of James Monroe in 1816 marked what was termed the "Era of Good Feelings," characterized by nationalism, optimism, and goodwill. ● Political Unity: The Federalist Party faded, and the Democratic-Republicans adopted some of their policies, leading to a perception of political unity. ● Underlying Tensions: Despite the nickname, debates over tariffs, the national bank, internal improvements, and public land sales continued. Sectional tensions over slavery were also rising. Economic Nationalism ● Post-War Political Movement: Aimed at supporting national economic growth through internal improvements and protectionist policies. Tariff of 1816 ● Purpose: Raised tariffs to protect U.S. manufacturers from British competition. ● Support and Opposition: Supported by most regions except New England, which had little manufacturing at the time. ● Significance: First protective tariff, protecting U.S. manufactured items from overseas competition James Monroe ● Background: Monroe was a Revolutionary War veteran, prominent in Virginia politics, and had served as Jefferson’s minister to Great Britain and Madison’s secretary of state. ● Election of 1816: Monroe defeated Federalist Rufus King, 183 electoral votes to 34. By 1820, the Federalist Party had nearly vanished, and Monroe was nearly unanimously re-elected. 62 4.3 - Politics and Regional Interests The Panic of 1819 ● Causes: Economic disaster triggered by the Second Bank of the United States tightening credit to control inflation. ● Effects: Bank closures, unemployment, bankruptcies, and foreclosures on western farmland. Shook nationalistic beliefs and led to calls for land reform and opposition to the national bank and debtors' prisons. Western Settlement ● Population Growth: Western population doubled due to the acquisition of new lands, economic pressures, improved transportation, and immigration. ● Reasons for Westward Movement: ○ Acquisition of Lands: Military victories opened new territories. ○ Economic Pressures: Northeast economic difficulties and southern soil exhaustion drove people west. ○ Improved Transportation: Roads, canals, steamboats, and railroads facilitated movement. ○ Immigration: Cheap land attracted European immigrants. Henry Clay’s American System ● Components: 1. Protective Tariffs: To promote American manufacturing and raise revenue. 2. National Bank: To provide a stable currency and credit system. 3. Internal Improvements: Federally funded infrastructure projects. ● Implementation: Tariffs and the national bank were established; internal improvements faced opposition from Presidents Madison and Monroe due to constitutional concerns. 63 4.3 - Politics and Regional Interests The Missouri Compromise Background ● Sectional Balance: Since Vermont (a free state) and Kentucky (a slave state) entered the Union in 1791-1792, maintaining a balance between free and slave states in Congress was a priority. ● Senate Balance: The Senate remained evenly divided with 11 free states and 11 slave states, allowing southern senators to block legislation they opposed. Missouri's Statehood Bid ● Significance: Missouri's application for statehood in 1819 alarmed the North as it was a slave state. Admitting Missouri as a slave state would tip the balance in favor of the South. ● Louisiana Purchase: Missouri was the first territory from the Louisiana Purchase to apply for statehood, raising concerns about the future status of other territories from the purchase. Tallmadge Amendment ● Proposed by: Representative James Tallmadge from New York. ● Provisions: 1. Prohibit further introduction of slaves into Missouri. 2. Emancipate children of Missouri slaves at age 25. ● Outcome: The amendment was defeated in the Senate. Southerners saw it as a step towards abolishing slavery in all states. Clay’s Proposals: The Missouri Compromise ● Henry Clay's Role: After months of heated debate, Henry Clay proposed a compromise consisting of three parts: 1. Admit Missouri as a slave state. 2. Admit Maine as a free state. 3. Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36° 30'. ● Passage: Both houses of Congress passed the bills, and President Monroe signed them into law in March 1820, known as the Missouri Compromise. 64 4.3 - Politics and Regional Interests Aftermath ● Sectional Feelings: The compromise temporarily subsided sectional tensions over slavery. ● Preservation of Balance: The Missouri Compromise maintained the balance between free and slave states for over 30 years, allowing time for the nation to mature. ● Nationalism vs. Sectionalism: Despite the compromise, Americans remained divided between loyalty to the Union (nationalism) and loyalty to their own regions (sectionalism). Map ● Geographic Impact: The Missouri Compromise delineated territories open to slavery and those closed to slavery based on the 36° 30' latitude line. 65 4.4 - America on the World Stage Jefferson’s Foreign Policy ● Policy and Principle: Jefferson aimed to avoid war, rejecting permanent alliances and striving to maintain U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic wars. ● Barbary Pirates: The Barbary states on the North African coast demanded tribute to prevent piracy. Jefferson refused to pay increased tribute and sent a small fleet, leading to sporadic fighting (1801–1805). The U.S. Navy gained respect despite no decisive victory. ● Challenges to U.S. Neutrality: France and Britain imposed blockades and seized ships from neutral nations, affecting U.S. commerce. The British navy was the chief offender, capturing U.S. sailors and impressing them into service. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair ● Incident: In 1807, the British warship Leopard attacked the U.S. warship Chesapeake, killing three Americans and impressing four others. This incident heightened anti-British sentiment, but Jefferson opted for diplomacy over war. Embargo Act (1807) ● Purpose: To avoid war and pressure Britain, Jefferson enacted the Embargo Act, prohibiting American ships from sailing to foreign ports. He hoped Britain would respect U.S. neutrality. ● Outcome: The embargo hurt the U.S. economy more than Britain's. It led to economic depression, particularly in New England, and spurred talks of secession. The act was repealed in 1809, but trade restrictions remained with Britain and France. President Madison’s Foreign Policy Commercial Warfare ● Nonintercourse Act of 1809: Allowed trade with all nations except Britain and France, aiming to end economic hardship while asserting neutral rights. ● Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810): Restored trade with Britain and France, with the condition that if either respected U.S. neutrality, the U.S. would halt trade with the other. Napoleon pretended to comply, leading Madison to embargo Britain in 1811, but France continued seizing U.S. ships. 66 4.4 - America on the World Stage Foreign Trade Graph (1805–1817) ● Graph Overview: Shows fluctuations in U.S. imports and exports, illustrating the economic impact of embargoes and wars. The big drop in 1807 is a direct result of Jefferson's Embargo Act. The War of 1812 Causes of the War ● Free Seas and Trade: The U.S. depended on the free flow of shipping across the Atlantic, which was disrupted by Britain and France during the Napoleonic wars. The British navy’s practice of impressing American sailors particularly angered the U.S. ● War Hawks: Young Democratic-Republicans from frontier states, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, pushed for war to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy Indian resistance. They influenced Congress to support the war declaration. ● Declaration of War: Political pressure and British delays in respecting neutral rights led Madison to seek a declaration of war in June 1812. Ironically, Britain had agreed to suspend its naval blockade, but the news arrived too late. 67 4.4 - America on the World Stage A Divided Nation ● Congressional and Public Division: The war declaration was supported by southern and western states but opposed by most northern states. ● Election of 1812: Madison was re-elected, defeating De Witt Clinton. The vote reflected regional divisions. ● Opposition to the War: New England merchants, Federalist politicians, and Quids opposed the war, viewing it as unnecessary and a threat to their interests. Military Defeats and Naval Victories ● Invasion of Canada: Attempts to invade Canada failed. An American raid on York (Toronto) in 1813 led to British retaliation. ● Naval Battles: The U.S. Navy had notable successes, including the victory of the USS Constitution and privateers capturing British merchant ships. The blockade by the British navy crippled U.S. trade. ● Chesapeake Campaign: British forces burned Washington, D.C., but failed to capture Baltimore, inspiring "The Star-Spangled Banner." ● Southern Campaign: General Andrew Jackson’s victories, including the Battle of New Orleans, boosted American morale, though the battle occurred after the peace treaty was signed. The Treaty of Ghent ● Peace Agreement: By 1814, both sides were ready for peace. The Treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve 1814, ended the war by halting fighting, returning all conquered territory, and recognizing prewar boundaries. It did not address maritime issues, resulting in a stalemate. 68 4.4 - America on the World Stage The Hartford Convention ● New England’s Threat: Radical Federalists in New England, opposed to the War of 1812 and the Democratic-Republican government, suggested constitutional amendments and even secession. ● Convention Outcomes: In December 1814, delegates at the Hartford Convention rejected secession but proposed several constitutional amendments, including requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress for future declarations of war. ● Aftermath: The convention's relevance was undermined by the news of Jackson’s victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent. This diminished criticism of the war and further weakened the Federalist Party, labeling them as unpatriotic. The War’s Legacy 1. International Respect: The U.S. gained respect from other nations after surviving two wars with Britain. 2. Canadian Boundary: The U.S. accepted Canada as part of the British Empire. 3. Federalist Decline: The Federalist Party collapsed as a national force and diminished even in New England. 4. Precedent for Secession: New England’s talk of secession set a precedent used later by the South. 5. Impact on Native Americans: Without British support, Native Americans were forced to surrender land to white settlers. 6. Industrial Growth: The British blockade spurred U.S. industrial self-sufficiency as factories were built. 7. Emerging Leaders: War heroes like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison became prominent political leaders. 8. Nationalism and Expansion: Nationalism grew stronger, and Americans increasingly looked to the West rather than Europe. 69 4.4 - America on the World Stage Monroe and Foreign Affairs Following the War of 1812, the U.S. adopted a more aggressive and nationalistic foreign policy under President Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. Canada ● Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817): Limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes, leading to an unfortified U.S.-Canada border. ● Treaty of 1818: Improved U.S.-British relations with shared fishing rights, joint occupation of the Oregon Territory, and setting the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel. Florida ● Western Florida: U.S. troops had occupied this area during the War of 1812. Post-war, Spain struggled to govern Florida due to revolts in its South American colonies. ● Jackson’s Military Campaign (1817-1818): General Andrew Jackson was ordered to stop Seminole raids into U.S. territory. He invaded Florida, destroyed Seminole villages, captured Pensacola, and hanged two British traders. ● Florida Purchase Treaty (Adams-Onís Treaty) (1819): Spain ceded Florida and claims in Oregon to the U.S. in exchange for $5 million and U.S. claims to Texas. This secured U.S. control over Florida and expanded its territory. 70 4.4 - America on the World Stage The Monroe Doctrine ● European Ambitions: After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, several European monarchies (France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) sought to suppress republican movements and considered helping Spain reclaim power in South America, where republics had recently declared independence. Additionally, Russia's expansion in Alaska and into California concerned both Britain and the United States. ● American Response: President Monroe, influenced by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, decided against a joint declaration with Britain. Adams argued that: ○ If the U.S. acted alone, Britain would support U.S. policy to protect its own interests. ○ No European power would risk war in South America, as the British navy would likely defeat any aggressor. ● The Monroe Doctrine: On December 2, 1823, President Monroe declared in his annual message to Congress: ○ The American continents are no longer open for colonization by European powers. ○ The U.S. would oppose any European attempts to interfere in the affairs of Western Hemisphere republics. ● Impact: ○ European Reaction: European monarchs were angered but recognized that the British navy, not Monroe's words, prevented their intervention. ○ Long-term Influence: Although initially not impactful, the Monroe Doctrine gained significance as a foundational aspect of U.S. foreign policy which will come back up during imperialism and later on. 71 4.5 - Market Revolution: Industrialization Key Factors in Development: 1. Military Campaigns: Federal troops drove American Indians from the land. 2. Infrastructure: Canals and railroads created common markets between the Great Lakes and the East Coast. Agriculture: ● Corn and wheat became profitable crops feeding growing urban populations. ● Innovations: The steel plow (John Deere) and mechanical reaper (Cyrus McCormick) increased farming efficiency. ● Farmers could plant more acres and supplement labor only during harvest. Roads ● Lancaster Turnpike: Connected Philadelphia with Lancaster farmlands, stimulating further road construction. ● National (Cumberland) Road: Extended from Maryland to Illinois, using federal and state funds. Canals: ● Erie Canal (1825): Linked western farms and eastern cities, stimulating economic growth and prompting further canal construction. Steam Engines and Steamboats: ● Steam engines allowed factories to be located away from streams. ● Clermont (1807): Robert Fulton's steamboat began the era of mechanized steam-powered travel. ● Steamboats reduced shipping times significantly. Railroads: ● First U.S. railroad lines were built in the late 1820s. ● By the 1830s, railroads competed with canals, providing faster and more reliable links between cities. ● Western towns like Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, and Chicago grew into booming commercial centers due to these transportation improvements. 72 4.5 - Market Revolution: Industrialization Industrial Growth and Commerce Factories: ● The introduction of factory systems, particularly in the textile industry, transformed manufacturing processes. ● Factories employed many, leading to urban growth and a shift from agrarian to industrial economies. Commerce: ● Improvements in transportation allowed for quicker, cheaper, and more efficient trade. ● Innovations in banking and finance facilitated commercial growth. Impact on Society Urbanization: ● Increased industrial activity led to urban growth as people moved to cities for factory jobs. Labor: ● Shift from agricultural work to factory jobs changed labor patterns and family dynamics. Economic Changes: ● The Market Revolution created a more interconnected national economy. ● The rise of a market-oriented economy led to regional specialization and dependency. Regional Differences: ● The North and Midwest were more interconnected due to improved transportation, while the South relied more on river transport and remained agrarian. 73 4.5 - Market Revolution: Industrialization Communication Telegraph: ● Inventor: Samuel F. B. Morse ● Year: 1844 ● Impact: Transmitted messages along wires almost instantaneously using Morse code (dots and dashes). ● Significance: Allowed for rapid communication across long distances, transforming how business and government operated. Growth of Industry At the start of the 19th century, the U.S. had a fledgling manufacturing economy. By mid-century, U.S. manufacturing surpassed agriculture in value, making the U.S. a world leader in industry by the end of the century. Key Factors: Mechanical Inventions: ● Patent Laws: Encouraged inventors to develop new tools and machines. ● Eli Whitney: Developed the cotton gin (1793) and introduced the concept of interchangeable parts, leading to mass production methods. Factory System: ● Samuel Slater: Emigrated from Britain with knowledge of factory designs, established the first U.S. textile factory (1791). ● Embargo Act and War of 1812: Stimulated domestic manufacturing. ● New England: Became the leading manufacturing center due to waterpower and available labor. ● Impact: Encouraged the growth of financial businesses like banking and insurance. Labor: ● Lowell System: Recruited young farm women to work in mills, housed them in company dormitories. ● Child Labor: Children as young as seven worked in factories. ● Immigrants: Employed in large numbers by mid-century. 74 4.5 - Market Revolution: Industrialization Commercial Agriculture Farming shifted from subsistence to commercial enterprise due to several factors: ● Land Availability: Federal government offered western land at low prices. ● State Banks: Provided low-interest loans to farmers. ● Transportation: Development of canals and railroads opened new markets. Cotton and the South Cotton remained the principal cash crop throughout the 19th century. ● Cotton Gin (1793): Invented by Eli Whitney, transformed southern agriculture. ● Impact: Made cotton more profitable, increased demand for enslaved labor and land in Alabama and Mississippi. ● Global Economy: Connected the South to global markets, with New England and European mills relying on southern cotton. Shipping, banking, and insurance industries in the North also prospered. 75 4.6 - Market Revolution: Society and Culture Women Employment and Roles: ● Urban and Industrial Impact: Women no longer worked alongside their husbands on family farms. ● Employment Opportunities: Limited to domestic service or teaching; factory jobs (e.g., Lowell System) were rare. ● Single Working Women: Predominantly unmarried; married women typically focused on household duties. ● Cult of Domesticity: Women became moral leaders in the home as men worked away from home. ● Marriages and Family Size: Fewer arranged marriages, some women chose to have fewer children. ● Legal Restrictions: Women could not vote and faced other legal limitations. Economic and Social Mobility Wages and Wealth Gap: ● Real Wages: Improved for most urban workers in the early 1800s. ● Wealth Gap: The disparity between the wealthy and the poor increased. ● Social Mobility: Possible from one generation to the next, with more opportunities in the U.S. compared to Europe. ● Extreme Wealth: Few instances of poor individuals becoming millionaires. Population Growth and Change Population Dynamics: ● Growth Rate: U.S. population doubled every 25 years from 1800 to 1850. ● Birthrate and Immigration: High birthrate supplemented by European immigration (mainly from Great Britain and Germany). ● Westward Expansion: By the 1830s, nearly one-third of the population lived west of the Alleghenies. 76 4.6 - Market Revolution: Society and Culture Immigration: ● Increase: Post-1832 saw a surge in immigration, peaking at 428,000 in 1854. ● Causes: Cheap ocean transportation, European famines and revolutions, U.S. economic opportunities and political freedom. ● Settlement: Mostly in northern cities and the Old Northwest; few went to the South. ● Economic Contribution: Provided labor and increased demand for consumer goods. Urban Population: ● Growth: Urban population increased from 5% in 1800 to 15% by 1850. ● Challenges: Expansion of slums, crowded housing, poor sanitation, infectious diseases, and high crime rates. ● Opportunities: Continued to attract both native-born Americans and European immigrants. New Cities: ● Development: Small towns at key transportation points grew into thriving cities (e.g., Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Cincinnati, St. Louis). ● Role: Served as transfer points for farm products and manufactured goods. Organized Labor Labor Conditions: ● Shift to Wage Labor: Independent farmers and artisans became factory workers. ● Common Problems: Low pay, long hours, unsafe working conditions. ● Labor Unions: Formed to protect workers' interests; notable victory in Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842), affirming the right to organize and negotiate labor contracts. Challenges for Labor: ● Depressions: Periodic economic downturns. ● Hostility: Employers and courts often opposed unions. ● Immigrant Labor: Abundant supply of low-wage workers limited union effectiveness. 77 4.7 - Expanding Democracy Greater Equality Alexis de Tocqueville's Observations: ● Social Interaction: People of all classes ate together and traveled together, making class distinctions less apparent. ● Equality of Opportunity: The belief that any White male could rise in society through talent and hard work was prevalent. ● "Self-Made Man": Celebrated in American culture, though women did not share in this ideal due to legal and cultural restrictions. Politics of the Common Man Between 1824 and 1840, American politics became more inclusive, involving middle- and lower-class citizens. Factors Contributing to Democratic Spread: ● New Suffrage Laws: Expanded voting rights to all White males, removing property and religious qualifications. ● Changes in Political Parties and Campaigns: Increased popular participation and voter turnout. ● Improved Education and Newspaper Circulation: Informed more citizens about political issues. Universal White Male Suffrage: ● Western States' Constitutions: Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri allowed all White males to vote and hold office, influencing other states to follow. ● Increased Voter Turnout: From 350,000 in 1824 to 2.4 million in 1840. Political Parties: ● Nominating Conventions: Replaced caucuses, allowing more popular participation. ● Popular Election of Electors: By 1832, all states except South Carolina allowed voters to choose presidential electors. ● Two-Party System: Emerged to organize national campaigns. 78 4.7 - Expanding Democracy Third Parties: ● Anti-Masonic Party and Workingmen’s Party: Addressed issues neglected by major parties, like secret societies and labor rights. More Elected Offices: ● Increased Voter Participation: More state and local officials were elected, involving voters more directly in government. Popular Campaigning: ● Targeting Common People: Campaigns featured parades, rallies, and free food, appealing to ordinary citizens. ● Negative Campaigning: Candidates often attacked opponents personally rather than discussing issues. Spoils System and Rotation of Officeholders: ● Jackson's Policies: Appointed loyal Democrats to federal jobs, replacing non-Democrats. ● Rotation in Office: Limited terms to allow more citizens to serve in government. ● Democratic Ideals: Affirmed the belief that ordinary Americans could hold government office, strengthening the two-party system. 79 4.8 - Jackson and Federal Power Jackson Versus Adams Political Change: ● Election of 1824: Marked the end of the Era of Good Feelings. Four Democratic-Republican candidates (John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, Andrew Jackson) split the vote. ● Outcome: Jackson won the most popular and electoral votes but lacked a majority, leading the House of Representatives to choose the president. Henry Clay's influence helped John Quincy Adams win, leading to accusations of a "corrupt bargain." The Presidency of Andrew Jackson Jackson's Leadership: ● Representative of the Common Man: Jackson symbolized the emerging working and middle classes ● Presidential Power: Jackson exercised strong executive power, vetoed more bills than all previous presidents combined. He used his veto power to limit federal spending and opposed the national debt. President John Quincy Adams: ● Policies: Adams' proposals for internal improvements and a national university were seen as overreach by Jacksonians. ● Tariff of Abominations: The 1828 tariff law alienated southern planters, worsening sectional tensions. The Election of 1828: ● Campaign Tactics: Jacksonians used new party organization tactics, including smearing opponents. The election saw high voter turnout. ● Result: Jackson won decisively, appealing to voters as a war hero and man of the frontier. 80 4.8 - Jackson and Federal Power Key Issues: ● Indian Removal Act (1830): Forced relocation of thousands of American Indians west of the Mississippi. Jackson supported state laws requiring Indian removal, leading to the Trail of Tears, where 4,000 Cherokees died. Indian Removal and Legal Battles: ● Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831): The Supreme Court ruled Cherokees could not sue as a foreign nation. ● Worcester v. Georgia (1832): The Court ruled Georgia laws had no force in Cherokee territory. Jackson did not enforce this decision, siding with states. Nullification Crisis Tariff of Abominations: ● South Carolina's Response: Declared the tariff unconstitutional and advanced nullification theory (states could nullify federal laws). ● Jackson's Position: Declared the Union must be preserved, countering Calhoun's states' rights stance. ● South Carolina's Actions: Nullified the tariffs of 1828 and 1832, forbidding tariff collection. ● Jackson's Response: Prepared military action and passed the Force Bill, asserting federal authority. Compromise tariff suggested by Jackson ended the crisis. Bank Veto ● Nicholas Biddle: Managed the bank effectively but was seen as arrogant, contributing to suspicions. ● Jackson's View: Saw the bank as unconstitutional and serving the wealthy. ● Veto of Recharter: In 1832, Jackson vetoed the recharter bill, denouncing the bank as a monopoly. Jackson's stance helped him win reelection. 81 4.8 - Jackson and Federal Power Emergence of Democrats and Whigs: ● Democrats: Supported Jackson, opposed national bank and federal spending on internal improvements, concerned with high land prices and business monopolies. ● Whigs: Supported Henry Clay, favored national bank and federal improvements, concerned with crime associated with immigrants. Jackson’s Second Term Pet Banks: ● Action Against the Bank: Jackson withdrew federal funds, transferring them to state banks ("pet banks"). Specie Circular: ● Policy to Check Inflation: Required land purchases to be made in gold and silver, leading to a financial crisis (Panic of 1837) after Jackson left office. President Van Buren and the Panic of 1837 Economic Crisis: ● Causes: Specie Circular and Jackson's financial policies contributed. ● Blame: Whigs blame Democrats' economics. The "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" Campaign of 1840 William Henry Harrison: ● Whig Nominee: War hero, used populist campaign tactics. ● Result: Harrison (left) won, but died shortly after taking office. Vice President John Tyler (right), a former Democrat, succeeded him. The Election of 1836 Martin Van Buren: ● Democratic Nominee: Jackson’s vice president, won the election. ● Whig Strategy: Nominated multiple candidates to throw the election to the House, failed as Van Buren won. 82 4.9 - The Development of an American Culture Cultural Nationalism Post-War Generation: ● Young Americans in the early 19th century focused on the nation's expansion westward and prosperity, moving away from European politics post-Napoleonic wars and War of 1812. ● Patriotic themes pervaded American society, evident in art, literature, and education. ○ Art: Painters like Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale, and John Trumbull honored Revolutionary heroes. ○ Literature: Parson Mason Weems' biography of George Washington extolled his virtues. ○ Education: Noah Webster's speller promoted patriotism before his dictionary was published. ● Nationalism and patriotism dominated the century's cultural ideals. A Changing Culture: Ideas, the Arts, and Literature Romanticism: ● Shifted from Enlightenment focus on reason to intuition, feelings, heroism, and nature. ● Transcendentalism: A key American expression of romanticism, led by New England thinkers. The Transcendentalists: ● Key Figures: Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. ● Beliefs: Mystical and intuitive thinking, discovering inner self, and finding God's essence in nature. Criticized materialism and valued artistic expression over wealth. ● Reforms: Supported individualism and antislavery movements. 83 4.9 - The Development of an American Culture Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882): ● Advocated for a unique American culture, self-reliance, and independent thinking. ● Criticized slavery and supported the Union during the Civil War. Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862): ● Lived simply in nature to explore essential truths, documented in "Walden" (1854). ● Pioneer ecologist and conservationist. ● Opposed the Mexican-American War, practiced civil disobedience by not paying taxes, inspiring later nonviolent movements by Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Brook Farm (1841-1849): ● Founded by George Ripley in Massachusetts to blend intellectual and manual labor. ● Hosted leading intellectuals like Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Theodore Parker, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. ● Ended due to fire and debts but remembered for creativity and educational innovation. Other Communal Experiments Communal Societies: ● Shakers: Early religious communal movement with 6,000 members by the 1840s. Practiced celibacy and communal living. Died out due to lack of new recruits. ● Amana Colonies: German Pietists in Iowa, emphasizing communal living and simplicity. Allowed marriage and continue to prosper. ● New Harmony: Secular utopian community in Indiana by Robert Owen, aimed to address industrial revolution issues. Failed due to financial and ideological conflicts. ● Oneida Community: Founded by John Humphrey Noyes in New York (1848), focused on social and economic equality, shared property, and complex marriage. Prosperous through silverware production. 84 4.9 - The Development of an American Culture Arts and Literature Painting: ● Genre Painting: Artists in the 1830s began portraying everyday life scenes, a style known as genre painting. ○ George Caleb Bingham: Depicted common people in domestic and public settings. ○ William S. Mount: Known for lively rural compositions. ○ Thomas Cole and Frederick Church: Focused on the heroic beauty of American landscapes, particularly in the Hudson River area and the western frontier. This movement became known as the Hudson River School, emphasizing the Romantic fascination with nature. Architecture: ● Greek Revival: Inspired by the democracy of classical Athens, American architects adopted Greek styles to symbolize the democratic spirit of the republic. ○ Columned Facades: Reflecting the grandeur of Greek temples, these architectural features were used in public buildings, banks, hotels, and some private homes. Literature: ● Alongside transcendentalist authors like Emerson and Thoreau, other writers contributed to a uniquely American literature. ● Nationalism in Literature: The War of 1812 supported a sense of nationalism, leading Americans to seek out literature with American themes. ○ Washington Irving: Known for "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," which utilized American settings. 85 4.10 - The Second Great Awakening Causes of Religious Reform Several factors supported the conditions for the religious reforms of the late 18th and first half of the 19th century known as the Second Great Awakening: ● Democratic and Individualistic Emphasis: The growing emphasis on democracy and individualism influenced religion, attracting worshippers to more participatory and less formal services. ● Reaction to Rationalism: The rational approach to religion favored by Deists and Unitarians prompted a reaction towards more emotional expressions of beliefs in worship services. ● Response to Market Revolution: The market revolution caused fears that industrialization and commercialization were leading to increased greed and sin. ● Mobility and Disruption: The disruptions caused by the market revolution and increased mobility led people to seek worship settings outside formal urban churches. Revivals The Second Great Awakening began among highly educated individuals and quickly spread through emotional and accessible preaching that appealed to a broader audience. ● Reverend Timothy Dwight: President of Yale College, Dwight's campus revivals motivated many young men to become evangelical preachers. ● Revivalism on the Frontier: In 1823, Presbyterian minister Charles Grandison Finney started revivals in upstate New York, appealing to emotions and fear of damnation, emphasizing salvation through faith and hard work. ● Baptists and Methodists: Circuit preachers like Peter Cartwright traveled to rural areas, attracting thousands to outdoor revivals. By 1850, Baptists and Methodists became the largest Protestant denominations. 86 4.10 - The Second Great Awakening New Denominations The religious fervor of the time led to the growth of new denominations. ● Millennialism: William Miller predicted the second coming of Jesus on October 21, 1844. Although the prediction failed, his followers formed the Seventh-Day Adventists. ● Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints: Founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, the Church faced persecution and eventually moved to Utah under Brigham Young. Despite opposition due to the practice of polygamy (later prohibited in 1890), the Church prospered. Reforms Backed by Religion The Second Great Awakening caused divisions between evangelical sects and older Protestant churches, but it also sparked several social reform movements, including: ● Efforts to reduce drinking (Temperance Movement) ● Abolitionist movement to end slavery ● Improved treatment for people with mental illness 87 4.11 - An Age of Reform Improving Society Reform movements initially focused on moral persuasion, hoping to change people's behavior through appeals to their sense of right and wrong. When sermons and pamphlets proved insufficient, reformers turned to political action and the creation of new institutions. Temperance ● High Alcohol Consumption: By 1820, the average American consumed five gallons of hard liquor annually, leading to social problems such as crime, poverty, and abuse. ● Moral Exhortation: The American Temperance Society, founded in 1826, aimed to persuade drinkers to abstain completely. ● Immigrant Opposition: German and Irish immigrants opposed temperance but lacked political power to prevent reforms. ● Legislation: Maine prohibited the manufacture and sale of liquor in 1851, with 12 states following suit. However, the issue of slavery soon overshadowed temperance efforts. ● Long-term Impact: The temperance movement gained renewed strength in the late 1870s and led to the 18th Amendment in 1919, which banned the sale of intoxicating liquors. Movement for Public Asylums Reformers aimed to improve conditions for criminals, the mentally ill, and the poor, who often lived in squalor and suffered abuse. ● Mental Hospitals: Dorothea Dix's crusade exposed the inhumane treatment of the mentally ill. Her efforts led to the establishment of mental hospitals and improved care in the 1840s. ● Schools for the Disabled: Thomas Gallaudet founded a school for the deaf, and Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe started a school for the blind. By the 1850s, many states had established similar institutions. ● Prison Reform: Pennsylvania built penitentiaries to replace crude jails, using solitary confinement to encourage repentance. Although the high suicide rate led to abandoning this method, it reflected the belief that structure and discipline could bring about moral reform. The Auburn system in New York enforced strict discipline and provided moral instruction and work programs. 88 4.11 - An Age of Reform Public Education ● Free Common Schools: Horace Mann was the leading advocate of the common (public) school movement. As secretary of the newly founded Massachusetts Board of Education, Mann worked for compulsory attendance for all children, a longer school year, and increased teacher preparation. In the 1840s, the movement for public schools spread rapidly to other states. ● Moral Education: Mann and other educational reformers wanted children to learn not only basic literacy but also moral principles. William Holmes McGuffey created a series of elementary textbooks that became widely used to teach reading and morality. The McGuffey readers extolled virtues such as hard work, punctuality, and sobriety. Many public schools reflected Protestant beliefs, prompting Roman Catholics to establish private schools. ● Higher Education: The religious enthusiasm of the Second Great Awakening helped fuel the growth of private colleges. Beginning in the 1830s, various Protestant denominations founded small denominational colleges, especially in the newer western states. Several new colleges, including Mount Holyoke College and Oberlin College, began to admit women. Adult education was furthered by lyceum lecture societies. Changes in Families and Roles for Women ● Cult of Domesticity: Industrialization changed roles within families. Men were absent most of the time, working outside the home. Consequently, women in these households took charge of the household and children, becoming moral leaders. This idealized view of women as moral leaders in the home is called the cult of domesticity. ● Women’s Rights: Women reformers, especially those involved in the antislavery movement, resented being relegated to secondary roles. Sarah Grimké, in Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women (1838), spoke out against discrimination. Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton began campaigning for women’s rights after being barred from speaking at an anti slavery convention. ● Seneca Falls Convention (1848): The leading feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York, and issued the "Declaration of Sentiments," declaring that "all men and women are created equal" and listing grievances against laws and customs that discriminated against women. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led the campaign for equal voting, legal, and property rights for women. However, the issue of women’s rights was overshadowed by the crisis over slavery in the 1850s. 89 4.11 - An Age of Reform Anti Slavery Movement ● American Colonization Society: Founded in 1817, this society aimed to transport freed slaves to an African colony. The society established Monrovia, Liberia, in 1822. However, colonization was impractical, as most African Americans did not want to leave the U.S. Between 1820 and 1860, only about 12,000 African Americans moved to Africa, while the enslaved population grew by 2.5 million. ● American Antislavery Society: In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison began publishing The Liberator, marking the beginning of the radical abolitionist movement. Garrison advocated immediate abolition without compensation and founded the American Antislavery Society in 1833. He condemned the Constitution as a proslavery document and argued for "no Union with slaveholders." ● Liberty Party: Formed in 1840 by moderate abolitionists, the Liberty Party sought to end slavery through political and legal means. They ran James Birney as their presidential candidate in 1840 and 1844. ● Black Abolitionists: Frederick Douglass, an escaped slave, was a prominent abolitionist who advocated political and direct action. He published The North Star. Other African American leaders, such as Harriet Tubman, David Ruggles, Sojourner Truth, and William Still, helped organize the Underground Railroad to assist fugitive slaves. ● Violent Abolitionism: Some, like David Walker and Henry Highland Garnet, argued for slaves to revolt. Nat Turner's revolt in 1831 resulted in 55 White deaths and brutal retaliation, ending antislavery sentiment in the South. 90 4.12 - African Americans in the Early Republic Hopes for the End of Slavery ● Early 19th century: Many hoped slavery would gradually disappear. ● Reasons: Soil exhaustion in Virginia and the Carolinas, constitutional ban on importing enslaved Africans after 1808. ● Reality: Rapid growth of the cotton industry and expansion of slavery into new states like Alabama and Mississippi. Free African Americans ● In the North ○ Economic/political equality: Limited by racial prejudices. ○ Employment: Often displaced by immigrants, faced job discrimination, denied union membership. ○ Religious life: Formed their own Christian congregations (e.g., African Methodist Episcopal Church). ● In the South ○ Freedom sources: Emancipation during the American Revolution, self-purchase, manumission by owners. ○ Economic/political status: Could own property but faced legal restrictions and constant threat of being kidnapped. ○ Reasons for staying: Proximity to family, belief that the North offered no better opportunities. Resistance by the Enslaved ● Restrained Actions ○ Work slowdowns and equipment sabotage as subtle defiance. ● Runaways ○ Challenges: Organized militia patrols, hunters, and harsh penalties for capture. ○ Underground Railroad: Facilitated escapes, increased demands for stricter fugitive slave laws. 91 4.12 - African Americans in the Early Republic Key Events and Terms ● Nat Turner's Rebellion: In 1831, Nat Turner led a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, killing over 50 White men, women, and children. The militia swiftly suppressed the rebellion, killing Turner and his followers, as well as many innocent African Americans. The rebellion led to stricter slave codes and increased fear among slaveholders. ● Slave Codes: Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights. These laws became more strict after events like Nat Turner's Rebellion. 92 4.13 - The Society of the South in the Early Republic Agriculture and King Cotton ● Foundation: Agriculture was the South's economic foundation. ● Key Crops: Tobacco, rice, and sugarcane were important, but cotton was the dominant cash crop. ● Cotton Gin: Eli Whitney’s invention increased cotton production and profitability. ● Exports: By the 1850s, cotton made up two-thirds of U.S. exports, linking the South and Great Britain economically. ● Westward Expansion: Planters moved westward to states like Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas due to soil depletion. Slavery, the “Peculiar Institution” ● Wealth Measurement: Land and enslaved people were primary wealth indicators. ● Justifications: Originally economic, later defended with historical and religious arguments. ● Population Increase: Enslaved population grew from 1 million in 1800 to nearly 4 million in 1860, mainly through natural growth and illegal smuggling. ● Restrictions: Fear of revolts led to stricter slave codes. Economics of Slavery ● Labor: Enslaved people worked in fields, skilled trades, domestic roles, factories, and construction. ● Economic Impact: High investment in slavery limited capital for industrialization. Southern Cities ● Urbanization: Limited compared to the North. ● Major Cities: New Orleans (largest, 170,000 people), St. Louis, Louisville, Charleston (each over 40,000). 93 4.13 - The Society of the South in the Early Republic Southern Culture and Thought ● Code of Chivalry: Aristocratic conduct, personal honor, defense of womanhood, and paternalism toward inferiors. ● Education: Upper class valued college; lower classes had limited schooling; education for enslaved people prohibited. ● Religion: Methodists and Baptists grew due to pro-slavery stance; Unitarians and neutral churches saw declines. Social Reform ● Reform Movements: Limited impact in the South; focused on tradition over modernization. ● Anti Slavery: Viewed as a northern threat to southern life, causing resistance to reform.