Random Fluctuation and Substratum Theories

Origin and Developer: $1958$ by the linguist C. Hockett.
Core Assertion: Hockett theorised that language changes do not follow a strict, predetermined path but instead develop in a more random way.
Mechanisms of Change:
- Language change occurs through its users.
- It operates as a reflection of the uneven use of spoken language, specifically where individual speakers pronounce words in a specific or unique way.
- This idiosyncratic pronunciation eventually spreads throughout a linguistic community.
- Over time, these random variations become perceived as the desirable form of discourse.
Conceptual Essence: posits that language changes arise from random and unpredictable variations rather than a deliberate or systematic evolution.

Linguistic Evidence:
- The primary evidence is the observation that users pronounce words differently; if these differences spread and achieve social prestige, they become the standard.
The Case of Estuary English:
- Hockett’s evidence included the spread of Estuary English.
- Origin: This dialect originated in London, specifically in areas around the city close to the Thames Estuary.
- Geographic Spread: It has transitioned from a local dialect to one found in many areas across the English-speaking world.
- Linguistic Features: Estuary English is characterized by a Cockney overtone.
- Phonological Examples: This dialect exhibits yod-coalescence in stressed syllables. Key examples provided include the pronunciation of words such as "tune" and "dune."

useful framework for explaining irregular and non-systematic changes within the English language that do not fit into broader rules.

Systematicity: It fails to provide an explanation for systematic, rule-governed changes that occur consistently across a language.
Global Universality: It is generally considered a weak theory because language change is not entirely random; similar changes have been observed to occur in completely unconnected languages.
Structural Constraints: Language structures possess identifiable constraints and "weak spots" that influence how they change, contradicting the idea of total randomness.

Origin and Developer: Devised in the $1970s$ by William (W.) Labov.
Core Theory: Labov noticed that language changes significantly due to the influence of non-native speakers.
Global Application:
- The theory links language change to the spread of language.
- When applied to English, it explains change through globalization: one variety of the language influences another over time through sustained contact.

Demographic Influence: In New York City, there is a very large Jewish population that speaks Yiddish.
Cultural Transmission: The Yiddish language has significantly influenced the local English dialect in New York through various channels, including:
- Pop culture.
- Theatre.
- Radio.
Lexical Adoption: Influence from these media caused Yiddish words and expressions to be adopted into the standard English dialect of the city.
Specific Example: The Yiddish word "Schmooze," which means "to chat," has been borrowed and fully adopted into the English dialect.

It provides a highly plausible explanation for specific linguistic phenomena.
It highlights the critical role of contact with other languages in shaping how a language evolves.
It emphasizes the importance of sociolinguistic influences on the development of English.

The theory requires clear, verifiable evidence of direct language contact with English to be proven in any specific instance.

Overall Assessment:

Substratum theory is considered a strong theory because it provides a substantial, evidence-based explanation for language change
resulting from exposure to different languages and their respective communities.
it also coincides with Chen’s S-curve theory