The Great Plains and the New South
Characteristics of the Great Plains
The Great Plains is defined as a vast region characterized by yearly rainfall that is sufficient to sustain grassland ecosystems, yet generally insufficient to support a large number of trees. This environmental reality presented a significant challenge for settlement, as a lack of rainfall would make it difficult, or in many cases impossible, for farmers to support themselves through traditional family farms. Historically, different figures held conflicting views on the potential of this region. John Wesley Powell issued a report assessing whether the land beyond the easternmost portion of the plains could actually support small-scale farming. Conversely, proponents of expansion, such as Charles Dana Wilber, summated the view that there were no inherent barriers to the success of small farmers in the plains. Wilber explicitly rejected the prevailing notion that the region should remain a perpetual desert, asserting that in reality there is no desert anywhere except by man's permission or neglect.
Federal Policy and Foreign Infrastructure Investment
The federal government exercised a significant role in facilitating the settlement of the American West. Federal lawmakers implemented policies that offered free or cheap land to both individual settlers and corporate entities. Additionally, the United States provided subsidies for the transportation of mail and military supplies, creating a framework of stability that allowed new businesses to start and flourish. The government linked transportation and communication systems to ensure a steady supply of workers and to promote further economic opportunities. To finance these massive undertakings, the U.S. turned to Europe, utilizing the sale of public bonds and private securities. This influx of foreign capital was so substantial that mines in Nevada were often described as being more British than American.
The transcontinental railroad served as the primary gateway to the West, linking the East and West coasts of North America. The construction projects attracted a diverse workforce; the Central Pacific relied heavily on Chinese workers, while the Union Pacific Company employed primarily Irish workers. In May , crews from both companies met at Promontory Point, Utah, signaling that the West was now open to anyone who could afford the price of a railroad ticket. However, this period of federal support also provided new avenues for systemic corruption. The Union Pacific created a fraudulent construction company known as Crédit Mobilier to funnel government money into own pockets, a scandal that was eventually exposed in .
The Homesteading Experience and Agricultural Expansion
Migrant farmers moving West were frequently referred to as homesteaders, a name derived from the agricultural homesteads they sought to establish on the land west of the Mississippi River. Despite their ambitions, the economic realities of farming on the plains were stark. Very few farmers were truly independent; the majority depended on short-term credit to survive. The federal government played a crucial role in opening these lands to farmers. The Republican Party, which had opposed the expansion of slavery, promoted the concept of free soil land for white men. Under the Homestead Act, settlers were granted free -acre lots to grow their own land, though many were unaware that such small plots were often unusable in the region's harsh climate.
Technological advancements made by industrial laborers were essential for western farmers to harvest the land's yield. Tools such as steel-tipped plows, threshers, and combines allowed for the processing of tough soil and crops, while windmills and pumping equipment provided essential sources of power and access to water. These innovations led to a significant expansion in agricultural production, which ultimately helped lower food prices. The promise of the plains attracted a large number of immigrants from Europe. Settlers from Sweden and Norway frequently moved to Minnesota and the Dakotas, while Nebraska saw an influx of Germans, Swedes, Danes, and Czechs. Railroad and land companies actively lured these migrants with advertisements claiming the West was the garden spot of the world.
Daily Life and Economic Hardship on the Plains
Railroads offered travel bargains to transport migrants to their new homes, often in dedicated immigrant cars where families and communities journeyed together, sometimes renting an entire car. Some early residents, like Linda Slaughter, noted that farms in areas like Bismarck were highly productive because the soil was kept moist by frequent rains. However, most settlers faced extreme loneliness and physical discomfort. Living in sod houses made from the limited available timber, residents dealt with bugs and rodents that frequently found their way inside. Environmental disasters, such as a plague of grasshoppers in , destroyed fruit trees and plants. During the and , agricultural prices fell, making it increasingly difficult for farmers to repay loans. This led to a cycle of debt that forced many off their land; nearly half of all homesteaders eventually abandoned their claims to move to nearby cities or other farms.
Farmer Organizations and Political Activism
From the end of the Civil War to the mid-, wheat and cotton emerged as two of the most important agricultural products. Most American farmers operated as independent businessmen who borrowed capital to pay for land, seeds, and equipment, intending to settle their debts once crops were sold. When prices dropped, farmers often increased production to cover their debts, which only served to increase supply and further lower prices. Unable to pay back loans, many farmers lost their property to the banks holding their mortgages. This economic pressure motivated farmers to seek new forms of social interaction and collective action. In , Oliver H. Kelley founded the Patrons of Husbandry, also known as the Grange, to brighten the lonely existence of rural Americans through educational and social activities. The association grew rapidly throughout the Midwest and South.
Grangers formed cooperatives to sell their crops at higher prices and fought against railroad monopolies that charged exorbitant rates to store and ship goods. By electing sympathetic legislators, they obtained regulations that placed price caps on railroads. While the courts initially upheld these victories in cases like Munn vs. Illinois, the Supreme Court later reversed itself in Wabash vs. Illinos, striking down state regulatory laws. During this time, many farmers' children left for the cities in search of better opportunities and a better life.
Women and Social Reform in the West
While the popular image of the homesteader is often male, women were instrumental in making life in the West bearable and contributed significantly to family well-being. A large number of single women and widows staked out their own homestead claims. For example, Anne Furnberg moved to the Dakota Territory in following her husband's death, eventually settling on acres where she managed a cow and chickens and sold butter. Between and women became landowners in the Dakotas during this era. Nora Pfundheier, a -year-old homesteader, noted her motivation was simply that she had no other prospects and the land was available.
Social issues also plagued western life; men often turned to alcohol to cope with loneliness and grueling work, which frequently led to alcohol-induced violence. In , women campaigned to ban the sale of liquor. Although that specific effort failed, they successfully won the right to vote and run for office in some local jurisdictions. Julia Robinson campaigned for women's suffrage in Kansas, inspired by her father's belief that his daughters had as much right to help the government as any boy. However, Kansas did not grant equal voting rights until .
The Mining and Lumber Booms
The discovery of gold in California in set the mining boom in motion. One of the most significant finds was the Comstock Lode in , the first major discovery of silver, from which miners extracted approximately million worth of ore. Samuel Clemens, who failed to find a fortune in Nevada and instead focused on writing, famously dubbed this era the Gilded Age. As the industry evolved, individual prospectors who could not afford expensive equipment were displaced by big businesses with the resources to buy mining machinery. Former prospectors became wage workers; in Virginia City, they earned a day, a sum that barely covered living expenses in a boomtown. Work was hazardous, often performed in temperatures reaching .
Miners sought to organize for better conditions, forming unions in the Comstock Lode areas in the mid-, though they faced backlash from companies that hired private police. In , the Western Federation of Miners was formed, eventually attracting members, though it excluded Chinese and Mexican workers. In these boomtowns, women often worked long hours as domestic laborers, though prostitution accounted for the single largest segment of the female workforce. By the early , many gold and silver deposits were exhausted, turning boomtowns into ghost towns. By the end of the th century, the Amalgamated Copper Company and the American Smelting and Refining Company dominated the industry. Similarly, the lumber industry saw the rise of large-scale operations. Frederick Weyerhaeuser purchased acres of timberland to end the chaotic competition of small firms. While lumber became part of a global market, the primary beneficiaries were merchants and bankers rather than the loggers and sawmill workers.
The Life of the Cowboy and Commercial Ranching
Cowboys, originally a Mexican tradition, worked for monthly wages herding and guarding cattle. Though romanticized, the work was difficult and dangerous. Starting in the late , cowboys moved cattle from Texas through Oklahoma in the -mile Long Drive along the Chisholm Trail to reach railheads for shipment to Chicago slaughterhouses. The cowboys were a diverse group; while % were white, the remainder included Black Americans and Mexicans. These groups faced significant racial discrimination and segregation; Jim Perry, a Black cowboy, remarked that his skin color prevented him from becoming a division boss.
Commercial ranching eventually absorbed these cowboys as big business took over. Spaniards had originally imported cattle to the Southwest, and by the late th century, million Texas longhorn steers grazed the region. Cattle worth to in Texas could fetch to in Kansas. The extension of railroads and the invention of refrigerated cars allowed meat to reach eastern markets without spoiling. This boom attracted eastern and European investors who established massive ranches. By the mid-, million head of cattle roamed the West. However, the industry faced challenges from international competition and homesteaders who used barbed wire to fence off the open range. The greatest disaster occurred between and , when two frigid winters and hot summers killed % of the cattle on the plains, leading many cattle barons into bankruptcy.
Industrialization and Social Control in the New South
Following the Civil War, the South experienced industrial expansion commonly referred to as the New South. While still largely rural, the region saw the growth of textile, cigarette, lumber, and steel industries. Railroads facilitated the rise of the Southern textile industry, leading many indebted or tenant farmers to move into mill towns