Approaches- all content

Approaches in Psychology

  • Origins of psychology: Wundt, introspection, psychology as a science

    • Introspection-trained observers were presented with a controlled stimulus, such as a ticking metronome, and asked to describe how it made them think/feel

    • Wundt’s contributions:

      • Wrote the first textbook of psychology

      • Set up the first laboratory of experimental psychology

      • Used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception

      • Pioneered the use of introspection as a method to study mental states

    • The scientific method is:

      • Objective

      • Controlled

      • Replicable

      • Predictable

    • Timeline:

      • 1879- Wundt opened the first psychology lab

      • 1900s- Freud and psychodynamic

      • 1913- Behavioural

      • 1950- Humanistic

      • 1960- Cognitive/SLT

      • 1980- Biological

      • 21st century- cognitive neuroscience

    • Evaluation:

      • - research was not scientific, as they were not observable behaviours

      • + although introspection is not scientific, it is still used today to gain access to cognitive processes

      • + Wundt’s methods have been credited as the start of cognitive psychology

      • + as Wundt applied the scientific method to studying the mind, it means in modern times, psychology is considered a scientific discipline

  • Behaviourist approach: classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research

    • Classical conditioning- learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned stimulus and a new neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.

    • Pavlov’s research- found that through pairing the presentation of food with a click sound, the dogs eventually began to salivate upon hearing the click sound on its own

    • Operant conditioning- a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences

    • Types of reinforcement:

      • Positive reinforcement- receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed in order to increase this behaviour

      • Negative reinforcement- avoiding something unpleasant by performing a behaviour, thus increasing the behaviour

      • Punishment- an unpleasant consequences that decreases the behaviour that it follows

    • Skinner’s research- a hungry rat was placed in a box that contained a lever that released food when pressed. The consequence of receiving food ensured the rat would repeat the action

    • Evaluation:


  • Social learning theory: imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes, Bandura’s research

    • Social learning theory says that people (especially children) learn by observing what people say and do. They are more likely to observe and imitate some people than others, these people are called role models.

    • Mediational processes:

      • Attention- the observer must be paying attention to and observing the model

      • Retention- the observer must be able to remember the behaviour they have seen

      • Reproduction- the observer must be capable of reproducing the behaviour they have observed

      • Motivation- if possible rewards are greater than the costs, then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer

    • Bandura’s research:

      • Children aged 2-6 watched a video of an adult being aggressive to a bobo doll, with different endings

      • Those who saw the adult being rewarded were more aggressive

      • Those who saw the adult being punished were less aggressive

      • Those who saw no ending had medium levels of aggression

    • Evaluation:


  • Biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures, and neurochemistry on behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour

    • The biological approach combines psychology and biology to provide explanations for human behaviour

    • Genes- make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical and psychological features of an organism

    • The biological approach believes that an understanding of biological features and their associated functions can explain psychological processes and characteristics

    • Two forms of internal communication:

      • Electrical impulses which travel around our brains, which are transmitted through neurotransmitters

      • Endocrine system- slower acting communication system which uses hormones released by glands

    • Genotype- a persons actual genetic makeup. Each person has a unique genotype (except for identical twins)

    • Phenotype- the way that the genotype of an individual is expressed, through physical and psychological features

    • Biological psychologists believe that genes may be responsible for certain behaviours

    • Some psychologists study the genetic basis of behaviour by comparing twins- if MZ twins show a higher likelihood of sharing behaviours/disorders than DZ twins it provides evidence that genes are a cause of that behaviour

    • Charles Darwin proposed the idea of natural selection to explain evolution

      • Any behaviour that increases an individuals survival will be passed on to future generations

      • Aggression is an example of a behaviour that is thought to be naturally selected

    • Evaluation:


  • The cognitive approach: internal mental processes, the role of schemas, the use of theoretical and computer models, cognitive neuroscience

    • The cognitive approach is concerned with the mental processes that occur in between stimulus and response

    • The role of schema

      • Schema are “packages” of information, beliefs and expectations in the mind developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information

      • Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly, which is useful as a mental shortcut that prevent us from being overwhelmed

      • However, schemas may cause errors in the processing of sensory information

      • They may also lead to depression and other mental disorders

    • We cannot see mental processes therefore using a model enables psychologists to make inferences about how these mental processes work

    • Theoretical models are abstract whilst computer models are concrete things

    • A theoretical model model should never be taken as an exact copy of the thing being described, but rather as an abstract representation of it

    • Computer models compare the mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way information is processed

    • The emergence of cognitive neuroscience:

      • Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the brain structures, mechanisms and processes that are responsible for cognitive thinking. This involves the mapping of brain areas to specific cognitive functions

      • PET and fMRI scans now help psychologists to understand how areas of the brain are linked to different cognitive activities and emotions

      • Cognitive neuroscientists also study atypical brains

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  • The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, structure of the personality (id, ego, superego), defence mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement), psychosexual stages

    • The role of the unconscious

      • Freud proposed that psychological factors cause mental illness

      • According to the psychodynamic theory we have an unconscious, which influences our behaviour. Our conscious mind is unaware of thoughts and emotions that occur in the unconscious, however it can have an affect on behaviour

    • According to Freud, a healthy personality is a balance between the id, ego and superego

      • Id- the id is entirely selfish, operating at an unconscious level and demanding instant gratification

      • Ego- tries to strike a balance between satisfying the demands of the id with the expectations of the superego and the outside world

      • Superego

      • Incorporates the values and morals we learn from our parents and society. It also contains the conscience

    • Ego defence mechanisms protect the ego from stressful thoughts and feelings

      • Repression- pushing bad experiences or negative emotions into the unconscious so you no longer think about them

      • Displacement- transferring undesirable impulses from one person to another object or another person

      • Denial- an outright refusal to admit or recognise that anything has happened

    • Psychosexual stages

      • Oral

        • 0-1 years

        • Focus of pleasure is the mouth

        • Source of conflict is weaning

      • Anal

        • 1-3 years

        • Focus of pleasure is the anus

        • Source of conflict is potty training

        • The ego develops

      • Phallic

        • 3-5 years

        • The focus of pleasure is the genitals

        • The outcome of the Oedipus and electra complexes affect the development of the superego

      • Latent phase

        • 6 years- puberty

        • Period of sexual calm

      • Genital

        • Puberty onwards

        • Establishment of mature relationships

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  • The humanistic approach: free will, self-actualisation, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and focus on the self, congruence and conditions of worth. The influence of counselling psychology

    • Free will- being free to chose what you do and the kind of person you can be

    • Self actualisation- every person has an innate tendency to self-actualise (achieve their full potential in life)

    • Maslow hierarchy of needs

      • A 5 stage model which can be divided into basic needs and higher needs

      • A person must satisfy the basic needs before progressing to the higher needs, however progress will be disrupted if the lower levels are not met

    • Focus on the self

      • According to Roger’s, to self-actualise, we need to receive unconditional positive regard, however most people only receive conditional positive regard

        • Unconditional positive regard- love is not withdrawn if a person does something wrong

        • Conditional positive regard- positive love is only given when a person behaves in ways the parents think are correct

      • Self concept- internal sense of who you are as a person

      • The ideal self- the person you wish to be/are aiming to become

      • Congruence- personal growth is achieved when a person is congruent- when their self-concept/ideal self are similar/consistent

    • The influence of counselling psychology

      • Roger’s developed client-centred therapy

        • The job of the therapist is to provide genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard

    • Evaluation