Adolescence - Part 2
Family Conflict During Adolescence
Family conflict sees a significant increase during adolescence.
Conflict topics vary based on individual experiences.
Examples of ineffective and effective conflict resolution.
Key parenting challenges in adolescence include managing the transition from dependence to independence.
Racial-ethnic differences may explain variations in parenting challenges.
Parenting Challenges During Adolescence
Managing the transition from dependence to independence is a key challenge.
With puberty, teens demand more autonomy.
Increased reasoning capacity raises tensions in the family.
Conflict typically focuses on everyday matters (e.g., driving, dating, curfews).
Parents report bigger underlying concerns (e.g., protect against substance use, auto injury/death, early sex).
Larger gaps between parent and teen views of teen’s readiness for new responsibility lead to increased conflict.
Rebalancing of warmth and control dynamics is essential.
Monitoring.
Psychological control.
Clarity about expected obligations.
This period is defined as a period of “careful scaffolding removal” (Source: Nick Allen, 2018).
Parenting Styles and Adolescent Adjustment
Four parenting styles:
Authoritative: Warm and accepting, demanding/controlling.
Authoritarian: Demanding/Controlling, Cold and unaccepting
Permissive: Warm and accepting, Undemanding.
Neglectful: Undemanding, Cold and unaccepting.
Figures illustrating SDQ (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire) total difficulties score based on mother's and father's parenting style across different SES (socioeconomic status) levels (Azman et al., 2021).
Adolescent Adjustment: Five C’s
Positive youth development is achieved in terms of the Five C's:
Competence.
Confidence.
Connection.
Character.
Caring/compassion (Source: Lerner et al., 2015).
Different cultures prioritize these differently, leading to different views of what is considered “optimal” youth development.
Cultural Contexts of Parenting Adolescents
Normativeness Theory (Lansford et al., 2018):
Parenting attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors predict adolescent outcomes depending on consonance with cultural norms.
Larger deviations from a culture’s norms predict poorer adolescent outcomes.
Parenting expectations that are more consistent with a culture’s norms predict better teen outcomes.
Evidence of greater within-culture variation than between-culture variation.
Abuse of Teens
The bottom-line message from research on adolescent development and parenting is that teenagers are vulnerable.
Teens have rates of abuse and neglect as high as or higher than those of young children.
Nearly 25% of reported child maltreatment in the United States involves victims who are 12 to 17 years old.
About one in four girls and one in six boys are sexually abused by age 18.
Thousands of U.S. teens and preteens become victims of sex trafficking.
Worldwide, risks for teens are equally grave.
An estimated 150 million girls and 73 million boys under the age of 18 have experienced forced sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual violence.
Over one million children are victims of sex trafficking, and 218 million are involved in child labor, most in hazardous work.
Physical abuse of adolescents is linked to mental disorders, poor school performance, substance abuse, suicide, and aggression.
Sexual abuse is linked to depression, eating disorders, sexual dysfunction, and early pregnancy, as well as to increased risk of further sexual abuse and abduction into sex trafficking.
Statistics from 2022 are provided regarding the number of cases of child abuse in the United States by age of victim, including figures for those 1 year and younger (1,789), 2 to 5 years old (113,259), 6 to 9 years old (106,417), 10 to 13 years old (89,384), and 14 to 17 years old (118,204).
Five Basics of Parenting Adolescents
The Raising Teens Project identified five significant ways in which parents can influence healthy adolescent development:
Love and Connect: Offer support and acceptance while affirming the teen's increasing maturity.
Monitor and Observe: Let teens know you are paying attention.
Guide and Limit: Uphold clear boundaries while encouraging increased competence.
Model and Consult: Provide continual support for decision-making, teaching by example and ongoing dialogue.
Provide and Advocate: Provide a supportive home environment and a network of caring adults.
Key Tasks of Adolescent Development
Examples include:
Identity development
Cognitive development
Socioemotional development
Identity Development
Identity development is a core task of adolescence, involving the formation of a coherent and stable sense of self.
Adolescence is a dynamic period of identity construction influenced by cognitive and emotional development, social relationships, cultural context, and individual experiences.
Theories of Adolescent Identity Development
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
Erikson (1968) identified identity vs. role confusion as the central crisis of adolescence.
Adolescents must integrate various aspects of the self (e.g., beliefs, values, goals) into a unified identity or risk experiencing confusion about their future roles in society.
Social-Cognitive and Narrative Approaches:
Contemporary theories emphasize adolescents’ increasing ability and motivation to construct personal narratives and engage in metacognition, helping them reflect on their past, anticipate their future, and create a coherent life story (McLean & Pratt, 2006).
James Marcia’s Identity Status Model:
Building on Erikson’s work, Marcia (1966) proposed four identity statuses based on two dimensions: exploration & commitment.
James Marcia’s Identity Statuses
Identity Diffusion:
Adolescents in this status have not yet experienced an identity crisis, nor have they made any significant commitments to a dominant identity.
Often characterized by uncertainty, disengagement, and a lack of direction.
Can be a temporary phase, especially in early adolescence, but prolonged diffusion is associated with poor psychosocial adjustment.
Identity Foreclosure:
Individuals have made strong commitments without undergoing meaningful exploration.
Often these commitments are adopted from parents, authority figures, or cultural expectations without critical reflection.
Foreclosed individuals may appear confident and goal-oriented but could struggle later if those commitments are challenged.
Identity Moratorium:
Adolescents in moratorium are actively exploring various identity options but have not yet made firm commitments.
This stage is marked by questioning, experimentation, and sometimes emotional turmoil.
Moratorium is often considered a healthy and necessary phase in identity formation.
Identity Achievement:
The individual has gone through a period of exploration and has made well-considered, self-chosen commitments.
This status is associated with higher self-esteem, stronger interpersonal relationships, and greater psychological well-being.
Achieved identities can continue to evolve, but decisions are grounded in reflective self-awareness.
Self-Concept and Multiple Selves
Adolescents develop a more differentiated and abstract self-concept, often experiencing conflict between their “actual,” “ideal,” and “feared” selves.
This is influenced by social context, including peer feedback, parental expectations, and cultural values.
Gender Identity
Gender identity cannot be assumed based on appearance, anatomy, social norms, or stereotypes.
Gender Identity: Core Elements
Core Elements:
Gender Identity: Categorizing oneself as male, female, or non-binary.
Gender Roles: Preferences, appearances, and actions that are correlated with particular gender identities.
Gender Object Choice: Attraction toward members of a particular gender.
All core elements listed above are fully dissociable.
Gender Identity Socialization
Gender socialization starts at birth.
Gender segregation is a key component.
Socially engineered gender identities and roles (e.g., girls talk, nurture; boys play, run around).
In the US:
68% of 3-4 y.o. DO NOT choose to segregate by gender
By 6, 70% of kids choose same-sex best friends
By 12, 90% choose same-sex best friend
Environments that do not impose the binary: <20% of adolescents make decision according to “assigned” sex (Bigler & Liben, 2017).
Gender Identity Development: Earlier Development
1 year: Can distinguish faces by gender.
2 years: Can label other genders; can sort objects into gender categories.
3 years: Can identify own gender; believe sex is determined by external attributes.
3-6 years: Develop gender constancy and rigid gender stereotypes.
8-9 years: Begin to be more flexible in gender stereotypes.
Gender Identity Development: Later Development
Early Adolescence (12-15 years):
Puberty brings significant physical and emotional changes that can intensify self-reflection and exploration of gender identity.
Adolescents may experience heightened awareness of their gender identity and may begin to question or affirm their gender in new ways.
Middle Adolescence (15-17 years):
Adolescents continue to explore and assert their gender identity.
This period may involve experimenting with gender expression, seeking out information and support, and confronting societal gender norms.
Some may come out as transgender or non-binary during this time.
Late Adolescence (17-18 years):
Gender identity becomes more integrated into the overall sense of self.
Adolescents may make more definitive decisions regarding their gender identity and expression.
They often seek acceptance and support from peers and family.
Non-binary Gender Identity and Development
Contemporary theories of gender development have moved beyond binary frameworks (male/female) to recognize gender as a complex, fluid, and socially embedded identity.
Gender as a Spectrum (Dimensional Model):
Views gender identity as existing along a continuum, rather than fitting into fixed male/female categories.
Estimated that of individuals identify as non-binary, genderqueer, agender, bigender, or fluctuate across identities over time (gender fluid).
This model is supported by research indicating natural diversity in gender identity, expression, and experience, both culturally and biologically (Richards et al., 2016).
Queer Theory:
Challenges the assumption of fixed, essentialist gender categories.
Views gender as performative (Butler, 1990), shaped by societal discourse and power structures.
Affirms non-binary identities as legitimate ways of resisting normative gender expectations and promoting identity freedom.
Lifespan and Fluidity Models:
Recognize that gender identity may evolve across the lifespan, including during adolescence, early adulthood, or later life.
Supports non-linear and non-fixed developmental trajectories, consistent with findings on gender fluidity and late-in-life transitions.
Adolescent Cognitive Development
Core Attainments: Develop advanced, abstract, and self-regulated thinking.
Think hypothetically and logically (abstract reasoning).
Plan and make decisions (executive function).
Reflect on one’s own thoughts (metacognition).
Consider multiple perspectives and social implications (perspective-taking).
Core Challenges:
Cognitive-Emotional Imbalance:
The limbic system (emotion/reward) matures earlier than the prefrontal cortex (regulation/judgment), leading to increased risk-taking and impulsivity.
Metacognitive Burdens:
Increased self-awareness can lead to self-consciousness, egocentrism, and phenomena like the imaginary audience and personal fable.
Context-Dependent Thinking:
Adolescents may reason well in abstract tasks but struggle with applying logic in emotionally charged or real-life situations.
Social Pressures:
Peer influence, identity exploration, and moral dilemmas complicate consistent decision-making.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Stage: Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)
Adolescents gain the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
They can understand complex problems, consider multiple perspectives, and think about possibilities beyond concrete reality.
Cognitive limitations are related to limited experience and feelings of invincibility.
Example: A teenager can reason about moral dilemmas, think about the future, and consider philosophical concepts such as justice or freedom.
Criticism: Not all adolescents (or adults) consistently reach or use formal operational thinking; development may be more gradual and domain-specific.
Other Theories of Cognitive Development
Information Processing Theory:
Views cognitive development as a continuous process of increasing efficiency in attention, memory, and executive functioning.
Adolescents improve in:
Working memory (holding and manipulating information).
Inhibitory control (suppressing distractions).
Cognitive flexibility (switching between tasks or viewpoints).
Metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking).
Emphasizes the role of brain maturation, particularly the prefrontal cortex.
Dual-Process Models of Cognition:
Propose two systems of thinking:
System 1: Fast, intuitive, emotion-driven.
System 2: Slow, deliberate, analytical.
Adolescents increasingly develop the capacity for System 2 thinking but are still influenced by emotional and social contexts (especially under peer pressure or risk).
Helps explain the “maturity gap” between cognitive ability and decision-making in real-life situations.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Highlights the role of social interaction and culture in shaping cognitive development.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The range between what an adolescent can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance.
Scaffolding: Temporary support from adults or peers to help adolescents master new tasks.
Emphasizes the role of language, dialogue, and cultural tools in advancing adolescent thinking.
Social Development in Adolescence
Key Tasks of Social Development in Adolescence
Domain | Core Developmental Task |
|---|---|
Identity | Integrating self across roles and contexts |
Friendship | Developing mutual intimacy, trust, and loyalty |
Peer Status | Navigating acceptance, rejection, and group hierarchies |
Romantic Relationships | Exploring attraction, emotional closeness, and boundaries |
Autonomy from Parents | Shifting emotional reliance to peers while maintaining attachment |
Social Cognition | Advancing perspective-taking and emotional understanding |
Adolescent Friendships
Adolescence marks a period where children begin to develop strong expectations of their friends.
Friendships have many advantages:
Help youth to develop social skills.
Help adolescence manage and to remain insulated from stressors.
Negative effects of friendship:
Jealousy and aggression.
Co-rumination (mulling over negative events together) can amplify negative tendencies.
Bullying/Cyber-bullying is a new epidemic.
Peer Pressure & Bullying in Adolescence
Conformity = homophily = similarity, increases throughout adolescence.
Teens select similar others.
Friends socialize similar behaviors: "deviancy training", Responding positively to bad behavior.
But ability to resist peer influence also increases!
A majority of teens have been the target of cyberbullying, with name-calling and rumor-spreading being the most common forms of harassment.
Data from a PEW Research Center survey:
59% of U.S. teens say they have experienced any type of cyberbullying.
42% have experienced offensive name-calling.
32% have experienced the spreading of false rumors.
25% have received explicit images they didn't ask for.
21% have experienced constant asking of where they are, what they're doing, who they're with, by someone other than a parent.
16% have experienced physical threats.
7% have had explicit images of them shared without their consent.
Romantic Relationships
Gender segregation dissolves into mixed-sex peer groups.
50% of teens in mid-adolescence are in a "serious" romantic relationship.
Cohort effects influence relationship norms.
Teens have to manage simultaneous romantic relationships and friendships.
Dating and Romance
Tend to date similar people.
Maybe opposites don’t attract!
Maturation occurs between ages 15 and 17.
Shorter, intense relationships early in adolescence.
Older adolescents have longer relationships with more compromise and deeper bonds.
Conflict is high in teen dating relationships.
Theories of Social Development
Sullivan’s Interpersonal Theory:
Emphasizes the developmental primacy of peer relationships.
Key milestones:
Pre-adolescence: Development of same-sex chumships based on mutual empathy.
Early adolescence: Emergence of romantic interest and deeper intimacy needs.
Posits that close peer relationships prepare adolescents for later adult intimacy and serve as a buffer against psychological distress.
Attachment Theory:
Internal working models developed in early attachment relationships guide adolescents’ interactions with peers and romantic partners.
Secure attachment in adolescence is linked to:
Higher quality friendships.
Better emotion regulation.
Reduced internalizing/externalizing problems.
Adolescents begin to rely less on parents and more on peers and romantic partners for secure base behavior.
Social Learning and Peer Influence:
Peers become powerful agents of modeling, reinforcement, and social norming.
Observational learning and vicarious reinforcement shape behaviors in domains like aggression, substance use, and gender roles.
The “deviancy training” effect shows how peers can reinforce antisocial behaviors, especially in unstructured settings.
Theories of Social Development (Continued)
Developmental Neuroscience Perspectives:
The maturation of the prefrontal cortex and the social brain network (including the medial prefrontal cortex and superior temporal sulcus) supports:
Empathy, self-awareness, and social decision-making.
Heightened reactivity in the limbic system during adolescence increases sensitivity to peer evaluation and social reward.
Sociocognitive Development – Theory of Mind and Perspective-Taking:
Adolescents refine their ability to understand that others have unique beliefs, emotions, and intentions—critical for moral reasoning, conflict resolution, and empathy.
The development of recursive thinking (e.g., "I know that you think that I think…") underpins complex social navigation, including impression management and deception.
Social Information Processing Theory:
Adolescents interpret social cues and make behavioral decisions through a series of cognitive steps:
Encoding, interpretation, goal clarification, response generation, evaluation, and enactment.
Biases in this processing (e.g., hostile attribution bias) are linked to aggression, peer rejection, or social withdrawal.
Adolescents’ growing capacity for perspective-taking and metacognition improves accuracy and flexibility in navigating social situations.