Notes on The Book of Kells, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Early Islamic World Module 8 done

Book of Kells

Overview

The Book of Kells is a manuscript containing the four Gospels in Latin, based on the Vulgate text completed by St. Jerome in 384 AD, with readings from the Old Latin translation. It also includes canon tables, summaries of the gospel narratives (Breves causae), and prefaces (Argumenta).

  • Written on vellum (prepared calfskin) in "insular majuscule" script.
  • Originally contained 340 folios, now measuring approximately 330 x 255 mm after being trimmed and gilded in the 19th century.

Origin

The exact date and place of origin are debated among scholars.

  • Most attribute it to the scriptorium of Iona (Argyllshire), though Northumbria and Pictland (eastern Scotland) have also been suggested.
  • Iona was the principal house of a monastic confederation founded by St. Colum Cille around 561.
  • In 806, after a Viking raid that killed 68 monks, the community moved to a new monastery at Kells, County Meath.
  • The book was likely written around the year 800, but it's uncertain whether it was produced at Iona, Kells, or both locations.

Significance

The Book of Kells is famous for its lavish decoration and artistry.

  • Abstract decoration and images of plants, animals, and humans embellish the text.
  • The decoration aims to glorify Jesus' life and message.
  • Full pages of decoration include:
    • Canon tables
    • Symbols of the evangelists: Matthew (the Man), Mark (the Lion), Luke (the Calf), and John (the Eagle)
    • Opening words of the Gospels
    • The Virgin and Child
    • A portrait of Christ
    • Narrative scenes, such as the arrest of Christ and his temptation by the Devil
    • The Chi Rho page (folio 34r), which introduces Matthew's account of the nativity, is the most famous page.
  • Portraits of Matthew and John survive, but those of Mark and Luke are missing.
  • Approximately 30 folios have been lost over time.

Artists and Scribes

  • Three artists seem to have produced the major decorated pages.
    • One artist's work on the Chi Rho page shows extraordinary fineness, likened to that of a goldsmith.
  • Four major scribes copied the text, each with individual characteristics within the scriptorium style.
    • One scribe only wrote text, leaving letter decoration to an artist.
    • Another, possibly the last, used bright colours (red, purple, yellow) for the text and filled spaces with repeated passages.
  • The relationship between scribes and artists is a key unresolved question.

Pigments Used

  • A variety of pigments were used, including:
    • Blue from indigo or woad (native to northern Europe).
    • Lapis lazuli was likely not used, contrary to previous belief.
    • Orpiment (yellow arsenic sulphide) for vibrant yellow.
    • Red from red lead or organic sources.
    • Copper green, which reacted with dampness, causing perforations on the vellum.
  • Artists often applied as many as three pigments on top of a base layer.

Usage in the Middle Ages

  • The text transcription contains errors due to "eye-skip," with omitted letters and words.
  • Text from one page (folio 218v) was repeated on another (folio 219r) and then crossed out with red crosses.
  • These errors, combined with the book's richness, suggest it was used for ceremonial purposes on special liturgical occasions like Easter rather than for daily services.

Historical Record

  • The Book of Kells is rarely mentioned in historical records.
  • The Annals of Ulster described it as "the chief treasure of the western world" and recorded its theft in 1006 for its cumdach (shrine).
  • It remained at Kells throughout the Middle Ages and was venerated as a relic of St Colum Cille.
  • In the late 11th and 12th centuries, blank pages were used to record property transactions related to the monastery at Kells.
  • In 1090, the Annals of Tigernach reported that relics of Colum Cille, including "the two gospels," were brought to Kells from Donegal. One was probably the Book of Kells and the other possibly the Book of Durrow.
  • After the rebellion of 1641, the church at Kells was in ruins, and around 1653, the book was sent to Dublin for safety by Charles Lambert, Earl of Cavan.
  • It reached Trinity College through Henry Jones in 1661 and has been on display in the Old Library since the mid-19th century.
  • Currently attracts over 500,000 visitors annually.
  • Since 1953, it has been bound in four volumes, with two volumes typically on display.

Lindisfarne Gospels

Overview

The Lindisfarne Gospels are a spectacular example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art produced in the British Isles between 500-900 CE.

  • During a time of invasions and political upheaval, monks read from it during rituals at Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island.
  • The Gospels safeguarded the shrine of St. Cuthbert, a bishop who died in 687.
  • His relics were believed to have curative and miracle-working powers.

Creation

  • A Northumbrian monk, likely Bishop Eadfrith, illuminated the codex in the early 8th century.
  • The manuscript includes:
    • 259 written and recorded leaves.
    • Full-page portraits of each evangelist.
    • Highly ornamental cross "carpet pages."
    • The Gospels, each introduced by an historiated initial.
    • Sixteen pages of canon tables set in arcades.

History

  • In 635 CE, Christian monks from Iona built a priory in Lindisfarne.
  • In 793, Vikings attacked and pillaged the monastery.
  • Survivors transported the Gospels safely to Durham, about 75 miles west of its original location.

Aldred's Colophon

  • Aldred, a 10th-century priest from Durham, provided information about the book's production in his colophon.
    • Eadfrith created the manuscript to honor God and St. Cuthbert.
    • Aldred inscribed a vernacular translation between the lines of the Latin text, creating the earliest known Gospels written in English.

Matthew's Cross-Carpet Page

  • Exemplifies Eadfrith's artistry, with repetitive knots and spirals dominated by a centrally-located cross.
  • Monks meditated on its patterns.
  • Eadfrith stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically against his intricate weave of knots.
  • Knots reveal themselves as snake-like creatures.

Early Islamic World

After Muhammad's Death

  • The century following Muhammad's death was marked by military conquest and expansion.
  • Muhammad was succeeded by the four "rightly-guided" Caliphs (khalifa or successor):
    • Abu Bakr (632-34 CE)
    • Umar (634-44 CE)
    • Uthman (644-56 CE): The Qur'an is believed to have been codified during his reign.
    • Ali (656-661 CE): Married to Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, and murdered in 661.
  • The death of Ali led to the split between the Shi'a and Sunni Muslims.
    • Shi'a: Followers of Ali, believing he should have directly succeeded Muhammad.
    • Sunni: The largest branch of Islam, not holding that Ali should have directly succeeded Muhammad.

Expansion

  • During the 7th and early 8th centuries, Arab armies conquered territories in the Middle East, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, and Central Asia.
  • The Umayyad Dynasty emerged as rulers.
    • Abd al-Malik completed the Dome of the Rock in 691/2 CE.
  • The Umayyads reigned until 749/50 CE, when the Abbasid Dynasty assumed the Caliphate.
  • After the Abbasid Revolution, no single ruler controlled all Islamic lands.

The Qur'an

  • According to Muslim literary sources, the Qur'an did not exist as a fixed text at Muhammad's death in 632.
  • It was "written down on palm-leaf stalks, scattered parchments, shoulder blades, limestone and memorised in the hearts of men."
  • During the rule of Caliph Uthman (644-656), a standardized copy of the Qur'an was compiled and distributed.
  • The original codices have not survived, but Uthman's introduction of a fixed text is recognized as a major achievement.
  • One of the oldest copies of the Qur'an, dated to the 8th century, is held in the British Library and includes over two-thirds of the complete text.

Early Qur'an Manuscripts

  • Early manuscripts were transcribed in scriptio defectiva due to the undeveloped state of written Arabic.
  • The script lacked annotations for long and short vowels, and diacritics were used sparingly.
  • Later, scholars developed notations to represent short vowels using red dots, which were eventually replaced by small vowel markings.

Introduction to Islam

Origins and the Life of Muhammad the Prophet

  • Islam, Judaism, and Christianity are monotheistic faiths sharing holy sites like Jerusalem and prophets like Abraham.
  • These are referred to as the Abrahamic faiths.
  • Islam was founded by Muhammad (c. 570-632 CE), a merchant from Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia).
  • Mecca was a trading city; the Kaaba there is the focus of pilgrimage for Muslims.
  • The Qur'an provides little detail about Muhammad's life, but the hadiths (sayings of the Prophet) provide a larger narrative.
  • Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE.
  • He married Khadija, a wealthy widow.
  • Around 610 CE, he had his first religious experience and was instructed to recite by the Angel Gabriel.
  • He accepted his role as God's prophet and began to preach the word of Allah.
  • His first convert was his wife.
  • Muhammad's divine recitations form the Qur'an, which is organized into verses (ayat).
  • In 621 CE, Muhammad was taken on the Night Journey by the Angel Gabriel from Mecca to Jerusalem, where he ascended into heaven.
  • The Dome of the Rock was built on the site of his ascension.
  • In 622, Muhammad and his followers fled Mecca for Medina (the hijra or emigration).
  • 622 (A.H.) marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.
  • Between 625-630 CE, battles were fought between the Meccans and the Muslim community.
  • Muhammad was victorious and reentered Mecca in 630.
  • He purged the Kaaba of its idols, making it the center for pilgrimage in Islam.
  • The Kaaba is believed to have been built by Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son, Ishmael.
  • The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael.
  • In 632, Muhammad died in Medina.
  • Muslims believe he was the final prophet in a line that included Moses, Abraham, and Jesus.