Comparative Psychology - Module 15: Learning and Culture

Module 15 – Learning & Culture

Introduction to Comparative Psychology

• Course Title: A Biological Basis of Behavior

• Instructor: Professor Marviene W. Fulton

Studying Cognition & Labeling Intelligence

Imagining a Red Apple

• Activity: Close your eyes and imagine a red apple.

• Question: How well can you imagine a red apple?

  • Basic cognitive abilities vary widely among individuals, even within the same species.

  • Some individuals can visualize vividly, while others have difficulty or cannot visualize at all.

• Aphantasia: The inability to visualize in the mind’s eye; considered a normal trait rather than a disability.

Internal Thought Processes

• Question: Do you think in your head, in words, or in sentences?

  • Internal monologue: Some individuals have a constant narrator in their heads.

  • Others experience thoughts as spurts of words or sounds without relying on language.

  • There is a wide spectrum of inner thought experiences, ranging from emotional imagery to silent text.

  • Many valid forms of cognition exist even within a single species.

Differences in Perception and Intelligence

Species Differences in Umwelt

• Umwelt: Each species lives in its own unique sensory world.

  • Variation in perception is normal across individuals and species.

  • Individual Differences: Even within a species, perception varies based on physiology and cognitive processing.

• This variability complicates definitions and measurements of intelligence, particularly across species.

• de Waal's Proposition: Intelligence should be measured within the context of each species’ Umwelt.

  • Challenges in Measurement: Designing IQ tests and interpreting results across species can be problematic.

Gene-Environment Interaction

• Behavior results from extensive interactions between genes and the environment.

• Gene Expression: Dependent on the right environmental context.

• Francis Collins Quote: "Genes load the gun, and the environment pulls the trigger."

• This concept must be considered when studying behavior and cognition.

Learning Shaped by Ecology

• Learning is influenced by ecological contexts where genes assist or constrain the learning process.

• The environment shapes the expression of learning.

• Learning facilitates fitness in unpredictable environments.

• Species exhibit variations in innate learning capabilities based on ecological contexts.

Learning, Environment, and the Brain

Role of Genes and the Environment

• Abilities for Learning: Genes shape the physiological aspects of the brain essential for survival needs.

• Brain structures evolve based on environmental predictability.

  • Example: Koalas, who evolved in a stable environment, exhibit limited cognitive flexibility and do not require extensive cortical folding.

Definitions of Learning and Teaching

Learning

• Definition: The acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or behaviors at an individual level.

Teaching

• Involves a teacher modifying their behavior in the presence of a student with no direct benefit to the teacher.

• Can incur a cost; for instance, big cats bringing live prey for young to practice hunting.

Examples of Teaching

• Active Teaching in Ants: Tandem Runs

  • One ant leads another along a known route, adjusting speed based on the follower’s taps.

• Costs: The leader incurs a cost by slowing down but benefits the learner.

Developmental Styles Affecting Learning

• Precocial Animals: Species born alert and mobile, requiring less parental care.

  • Exhibit rapid learning through imitation of an imprinted model.

• Imprinting: A fast, early-life bond developed with the first moving stimulus during a critical period (typically within 5–24 hours).

• Altricial Animals: Born helpless and dependent on adult care, excel at complex learning over time due to extended development.

• Ethologist Example: Konrad Lorenz and graylag geese that imprinted on him as the first moving object.

Intelligence and Brain Size in Primates

Brain Size Correlations

• Larger executive brain ratios in primates relate to:

  • Increased innovation.

  • Enhanced social learning potentials.

• Statistics: Research analyzed 533 innovations and 445 learning events but indicated brain size does not equal intelligence universally across species.

• Examples:

  • Bees showcase cognition involving emotion and memory, and from different species, dung beetles navigate using celestial cues.

Performance Comparisons

• Human vs. Chimpanzee Performance:

  • Example: Chimps exhibit faster visual memory, as demonstrated by the case of Ayumu.

  • Trained memory experts were unable to surpass chimp performances.

• Hummingbirds: Track a significant number of flowers (1,000–2,000 daily) utilizing an enlarged hippocampus that facilitates memory for both timings and locations associated with feeding.

Adaptive Specialization Hypothesis

• Definition: Cognitive processes and brain evolution adapt to solve specific ecological challenges.

• Evidence: Reverse-sex differences in spatial abilities observed in brown-headed cowbirds, with females facing greater spatial challenges leading to larger hippocampal volumes.

• Research finding (2014): Female cowbirds presented enhanced spatial memory accuracy compared to males.

Constraints and Assistants in Learning

Specific Examples

Vampire Bats

• Behavior: Vampire bats lack the ability to learn taste aversion despite negative experiences, whereas insectivorous bats do learn to avoid harmful flavors.

  • Demonstrates that operant conditioning is effective only when aligned with ecological relevance.

Clark’s Nutcracker

• Characteristics: An altricial species where both parents cache 30,000 seeds; males exhibit superior spatial memory due to treasure retrieval responsibilities after prolonged intervals.

  • The reproductive role influences the males' reduced spatial error rates.

Comparative Learning in Species

Research Overview

• Clark’s Nutcracker Tasks (1995):

  • (A) Spatial Task: Exemplary performance by Clark's nutcracker.

  • (B) Color Task: Other jay species outperform nutcrackers, demonstrating species' cognitive specializations.

• Findings support the adaptive specialization theory as species develop cognitive abilities suitable for their ecological roles.

Human Spatial Skills: Thought Experiments

• Research indicates college males outperform females in virtual spatial tasks.

  • Hypotheses for this phenomenon:

  • Ultimate Hypothesis: Males may have evolutionary advantages from navigating farther distances for hunting.

  • Proximate Hypothesis: Higher exposure to video games boosts male spatial performance, with biological influences (e.g., testosterone) enhancing proficiency.

Division of Labor and Brain Flexibility

Gender Roles and Navigation

• Evidence: Studies on taxi drivers in 2000 showed hippocampus growth correlates with navigational experience; however, initial differences in brain size exist where women can also experience growth in similar structures.

• Findings regarding cultural practices influence both genders' navigation skills.

Biocultural Influences on Learning

Culture's Role

• Learning is shaped not only by ecology but also by culture which spreads socially and impacts survival and reproduction.

• Evolving cultural knowledge serves as an inheritance system demonstrating the interaction between genetics, learning, and cultural evolution.

Defining Culture

• Definition: Culture refers to the shared, socially learned knowledge, behaviors, or materials which co-evolve with learning mechanisms in society.

• Behavioral Traditions: Predominately passed through imitation, emphasizing the need for fidelity in such imitative processes to sustain cultural behaviors across generations.

Examples of Cultural Transmission

Elephants Learning to Paint

• Observation (1998): Elephants at a sanctuary learned painting, yet no evidence of cultural transmission as no individual painted independently or taught another.

• Highlighted impressive learning sans cultural passing on.

Social Networks in Great Tits

• Observation: Solution to a feeder puzzle spread among 75% of the studied population within three weeks, demonstrating individual populations developed unique methods of problem-solving through social interactions.

Cultural Practices among Chimpanzees

Archaeological Evidence

• Chimpanzees in Côte d’Ivoire: Utilized stone tools for nut-cracking for over 4,300 years. Artifacts align with modern behavior indicating a distinct nonhuman archaeological culture.

• Capuchin Monkeys: For more than 3,000 years utilized tools at their site with changes reflecting adaptation, passing techniques down through social networks.

Dolphin Foraging Traditions

• Cooperative Fishing: Dolphins in Brazil use synchronized fishing techniques shared across species for survival benefits.

• Mud Ring Feeding: Dolphins create sediment plumes to trap fish, noted in studies since 2003.

• Matrilineal Tool Use: Dolphins in Shark Bay employ marine sponges for protection while foraging, indicating a strong matrilineal transmission of tool-based behavior.

Shell Use in Dolphins

• Recent studies (2020) revealed dolphins use shells in sophisticated ways to catch prey, signaling dynamic learning through social associations.

Gene-Culture Coevolution and Specialization

Orca Cultural Divergence

• Orcas display distinct cultural behaviors across groups leading to a potential evolutionary divergence as diets shape anatomical structures, illustrating how culture influences biological evolution.

• New research recognizes this divergence as a pathway toward speciation.

Cultural Rituals in Capuchins

• Example: White-faced Capuchin monkeys partake in ritualized nose- and eye-poking behaviors that strengthen group bonds, not directly serving a functional purpose but enhancing social cohesion and potentially impacting survival.

Parenting Defined by Culture

• Cultural norms dictate parenting behaviors, influencing affection distribution, and how specific children receive care, directly affecting emotional and health outcomes, supported by Harlow's studies on maternal deprivation.

Cultural Negatives: Tuberculosis and Body Ideals

• The Victorian era romanticized tuberculosis symptoms, creating a body ideal linked to disease, leading to adverse impacts on fashion and healthcare access across societal norms.

Genetic Isolation Consequences

• Case of the Blue Fugates: Inbreeding led to a recessive trait causing blue skin, demonstrating negative health implications when community marriage norms prioritize genetic similarity.

Insights on Brain Evolution

• Milestones and Brain Growth Correlation: Key cultural advancements like the emergence of stone tools and consistent living in cooler climates correlate with significant phases of brain expansion throughout human evolution.

Cultural Drivers of Brain Size

Cooking and Brain Growth Hypothesis

• Supported by archaeological evidence indicating cooking facilitated dietary transitions that allowed human cranial expansion through reduced bite force and increased nutrient absorption from softer foods.

Lactase Persistence as Gene-Culture Interaction

Evolution and Adaptation

• Lactase Persistence (LP): A trait evolved due to cultural behavior of animal domestication, permitting milk digestion beyond weaning, highlighting independent evolution across diverse dairy cultures and changes in human dental morphology.

Modern Gene-Culture Interactions in Bajau Divers

• Bajau: A culture adapted to aquatic environments, exhibiting physiological adaptations like oversized spleens for extended diving, reflecting significant genetic changes relevant to their lifestyle.

Early Discoveries in Animal Culture

Innovations from 1920s to 1960s

• Documented spread of behavioral traditions in various species exhibiting social learning mechanisms.

• Research captures how behaviors like milk bottle pecking in blue tits and potato washing in Japanese macaques exemplify learned traditions.

Advancements in Understanding Animal Culture

Chimpanzee Studies

• Communities exhibit diverse cultural variants, showcasing intricate behaviors extending beyond mere survival skills into fashion-like rituals among species, such as the noted grass-in-ear tradition.

Cultural Behavior Studies in Fish and Insects

Social Learning Mechanics

• Observations of predator recognition in fish and foraging traditions signaling social learning in insects indicate the potential for cultural behaviors without necessitating tool usage.

Need for Further Research in Animal Culture

• Acknowledgment that captive studies frequently restrict focus on common mammals; outdoor field studies yield fruitful insights into elusive species and highlight the need for comparative methodology across species.

Conservation and Cultural Preservation

Importance of Cultural Knowledge

• Highlighting the necessity to save not just genetically diverse individuals but also those who retain cultural knowledge for the survival of certain species; underscores effective conservation practices.

Summary of Key Modules from Learning and Culture Check-In

Key Areas:

1. Species & Individual Differences

2. Gene and Environment Interaction in Learning & Fitness

3. Learning, Environment, and the Brain

4. Cultural Learning Dynamics

5. The Role of Culture in Direct & Indirect Fitness Effects

6. Early Discoveries and Advances in Animal Culture

7. Gene-Culture Interactions in Humans & Other Species

8. Importance of Cultural Knowledge in Conservation