Exhaustive Study Notes on Power-Sharing

Introduction to Power-Sharing in Democracies

• In a democracy, all power does not rest with any one organ of the government.

• An intelligent sharing of power among the legislature, executive, and judiciary is fundamental to the design of a democratic system.

• The concept of power-sharing is explored through comparative studies of Belgium and Sri Lanka, illustrating how different democracies handle demands for power.

• General conclusions from these cases help define the various forms of power-sharing utilized in modern political systems.

Ethnic Composition of Belgium: A Case of Complex Demographics

• Geography and Scale: Belgium is a small European country, smaller in area than the Indian state of Haryana. It shares borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Luxembourg.

• Population: The population is slightly over $1$ crore ($10,000,000$), which is approximately half the population of Haryana.

• Ethnic Breakdown:     - Flemish Region: $59\%$ of the total population lives here and speaks the Dutch language.     - Wallonia Region: $40\%$ of the population lives here and speaks French.     - German-speaking: The remaining $1\%$ of Belgians speak German.

• Capital City (Brussels): The ethnic composition is reversed compared to the country; $80\%$ of the population is French-speaking, while $20\%$ is Dutch-speaking.

• Socio-Economic Tensions: The French-speaking minority was historically relatively rich and powerful. This caused resentment among the Dutch-speaking majority, who only received the benefits of economic development and education much later. This disparity led to acute tensions during the $1950s$ and $1960s$, particularly in Brussels, where the Dutch were a majority in the country but a minority in the capital.

• Definition of Ethnic: A social division based on shared culture. Members of an ethnic group believe in a common descent due to similarities in physical type, culture, or both, though they do not necessarily share the same religion or nationality.

Ethnic Composition of Sri Lanka: Diverse Identities

• Geography: Sri Lanka is an island nation located a few kilometers off the southern coast of Tamil Nadu.

• Population: Total population is approximately $2$ crore ($20,000,000$), similar to Haryana.

• Major Social Groups:     - Sinhala-speakers: Constitute $74\%$ of the population.     - Tamil-speakers: Constitute $18\%$ of the population.

• Tamil Sub-groups:     - Sri Lankan Tamils: Native Tamils concentrated in the north and east of the country, making up $13\%$ of the population.     - Indian Tamils: Descendants of plantation workers brought from India during the colonial period.

• Religious Diversity:     - Most Sinhala-speakers are Buddhists.     - Most Tamils are Hindus or Muslims.     - Approximately $7\%$ of the population are Christians, belonging to both Tamil and Sinhala groups.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka: Policies and Consequences

• Independence: Sri Lanka became an independent country in $1948$.

• Definition of Majoritarianism: A belief that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority.

• The 1956 Act: An act was passed to recognize Sinhala as the only official language, disregarding Tamil.

• Preferential Policies: The government favored Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.

• State Religion: A new constitution mandated that the state shall protect and foster Buddhism.

• Impact on Tamils: These measures increased a sense of alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils. They felt that major political parties led by Buddhist Sinhala leaders were insensitive to their culture and language. They perceived that the constitution and policies denied them equal political rights and discriminated against them in employment and opportunities.

• Conflict and Civil War:     - Relations between Sinhala and Tamil communities became strained.     - Tamils launched parties and struggled for the recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy, and equal opportunity.     - By the $1980s$, political organizations demanded an independent Tamil Eelam (state) in northern and eastern Sri Lanka.     - The distrust escalated into a Civil War.     - Civil War Definition: A violent conflict between opposing groups within a country that becomes so intense it appears like a war.     - Consequences: Thousands were killed on both sides; many families became refugees; the country suffered a massive setback to its social, cultural, and economic life. The war ended in $2009$.

Accommodation in Belgium: The Innovative Model of Power-Sharing

• Philosophy: Belgian leaders recognized regional differences and cultural diversities, choosing accommodation over majoritarianism to preserve national unity.

• Constitutional Amendments: Between $1970$ and $1993$, the Belgian constitution was amended four times to create a system where all communities could live together.

• Key Elements of the Belgian Model:     - Equal Representation at the Center: The Constitution prescribes that the number of Dutch and French-speaking ministers shall be equal in the central government. Special laws require the support of a majority of members from each linguistic group to prevent unilateral decisions.     - Devolution of Power: Many powers of the Central Government were transferred to State Governments in the two regions. State Governments are not subordinate to the Central Government.     - Brussels Government: The capital has a separate government with equal representation for both Dutch and French-speaking communities.     - Community Government: In addition to Central and State governments, there is a third tier elected by people of one language community (Dutch, French, or German), regardless of where they live. This government handles cultural, educational, and language-related issues.

• Results: While complex, this model prevented civic strife and the division of the country. Brussels was later chosen as the headquarters of the European Union ($EU$).

Rationales for Power-Sharing: Prudential vs. Moral Reasons

• Prudential Reasons:     - Based on careful calculation of gains and losses.     - Power sharing reduces the possibility of conflict between social groups.     - It ensures political stability, as social conflict often leads to violence.     - While majoritarianism may seem attractive in the short run, it undermines national unity in the long run and often adversely affects the majority as well.

• Moral Reasons:     - Power sharing is the "very spirit of democracy."     - A democratic rule involves sharing power with those affected by its exercise and who must live with its effects.     - Citizens have a right to be consulted on how they are governed.     - A legitimate government is one where citizens acquire a stake in the system through participation.

Forms of Power-Sharing in Modern Democracies

1. Horizontal Distribution of Power:     - Power is shared among different organs of government: legislature, executive, and judiciary.     - These organs are at the same level but exercise different powers.     - This creates a System of Checks and Balances, where each organ checks the others, ensuring no single organ has unlimited power.

2. Vertical Division of Power (Federal Division):     - Power is shared among governments at different levels: a general government for the entire country (Federal/Central/Union Government) and governments at provincial or regional levels (State Governments in India).     - This can extend to lower levels like municipalities and panchayats.

3. Power Sharing Among Social Groups:     - Power is shared between different religious and linguistic groups.     - Examples include Belgium's 'Community Government' and the system of 'reserved constituencies' in India, which gives representation to socially weaker sections, women, and minorities in legislatures and administration.

4. Power Sharing Among Political Parties, Pressure Groups, and Movements:     - Competition among different parties ensures power does not remain in one hand over the long term.     - Coalition Government: Formed when two or more parties alliance to contest elections or form a government, directly sharing power.     - Interest Groups: Groups representing traders, businessmen, farmers, and industrial workers influence the decision-making process through participation in committees or lobbying.

Questions & Discussion

• Khalil’s Dilemma in Lebanon:     - The Story: In Beirut, Khalil lives in a system where top political posts are fixed by community (President must be Maronite Catholic, Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, Deputy PM an Orthodox Christian, Speaker a Shi'a Muslim). Christians agreed not to seek French protection, and Muslims agreed not to seek unification with Syria.     - The Conflict: Khalil, born to an Orthodox Christian father and Sunni Muslim mother, wants a "normal" democracy where anyone can contest and the majority winner becomes President. His elders argue the pact is the only guarantee of peace following a bitter civil war.     - The Question: If you had the power to rewrite Lebanon’s rules, would you adopt regular election rules or stick to the old ones to ensure peace?

• Scenario Analysis: Annette in a Dutch school in Belgium wants French instruction; Selvi in a Tamil school in Sri Lanka wants Tamil instruction. Who is more likely to succeed?     - Answer: Annette is more likely to succeed because Belgium's Community Government and accommodation model specifically protect linguistic rights, whereas Sri Lanka’s majoritarian policies historically ignored Tamil interests.

• Classroom Metaphor: A student asks if the class monitor changing every month counts as power-sharing.     - Context: This represents a rotation of power, ensuring one individual does not hold authority indefinitely, reflecting democratic principles in a simplified form.

• Critique of Models:     - Thomman: Power sharing is only for divided societies.     - Mathayi: Power sharing is only for large countries.     - Ouseph: Every society needs power sharing regardless of size or division.     - Conclusion: Ouseph’s view is most aligned with the text, as power-sharing is presented as the "very spirit of democracy" applicable to all democratic systems to ensure stability and legitimacy.

Practice Examples Identifications

• Separation of Powers: The Bombay High Court ordering the Maharashtra State Government to improve children’s homes (Judiciary checking the Executive).

• Federal Division: Finance ministers of Nigerian states demanding the federal government declare income sources and revenue distribution formulas (Sharing between levels of government).

• Coalition/Political Sharing: Russia's Union of Right Forces and Liberal Yabloko Movement forming an alliance for elections.

• Social Group Sharing: Ontario (Canada) settling land claims with the aboriginal community (Sharing power with minority/native social groups).