S2 APUSH
Early 20th Century U.S Foreign Policy
Isolationism: A U.S. foreign policy stance focused on avoiding alliances and involvement in international conflicts, especially in Europe; rooted in Washington’s Farewell Address and reinforced after WWI.
Collective Security: The idea that peace could be maintained by countries acting together to defend each other against aggressors; basis for the League of Nations proposal after WWI.
Internationalism: A belief that the U.S. should engage with other nations to shape world affairs; favored by Woodrow Wilson post-WWI with the League of Nations.
Imperialism: The policy of extending a country's power through acquiring territories or influencing weaker nations; seen in U.S. actions like the Spanish-American War and annexation of the Philippines.
Monroe Doctrine: A U.S. policy (1823) warning European nations not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere; later expanded by Roosevelt's Corollary to justify intervention in Latin America.
Influence of Sea Power Upon History: A book by Alfred Thayer Mahan arguing that naval power was key to national greatness; used to justify American imperial expansion.
Annexation of Hawaii: In 1898, the U.S. formally annexed Hawaii following a coup by American settlers; significant for U.S. expansion into the Pacific.
Spanish-American War: A 1898 conflict where the U.S. defeated Spain and gained control over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines; marked the U.S. emergence as a world power.
U.S.S. Maine: A U.S. battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor; sensationalized by yellow journalism and used as a rallying cry ("Remember the Maine!") for war against Spain.
Treaty of Paris (1898): The agreement that ended the Spanish-American War; Spain ceded its empire in the Americas and Pacific to the U.S.
Annexation of Philippines: Following the Spanish-American War, the U.S. took control of the Philippines despite Filipino resistance, sparking debate over American imperialism.
Teller Amendment: A U.S. promise that it would not annex Cuba after defeating Spain; later undermined by the Platt Amendment.
Platt Amendment: Legislation that restricted Cuba’s independence by allowing U.S. intervention and a naval base at Guantanamo Bay.
"White Man’s Burden": A concept popularized by Rudyard Kipling encouraging imperial powers to "civilize" non-white nations; used to justify American and European imperialism.
Insular Cases (1901–1903): Supreme Court rulings that stated constitutional rights did not fully extend to U.S. territories; allowed imperial governance without full citizenship.
Big Stick Diplomacy: Theodore Roosevelt’s foreign policy motto — "speak softly and carry a big stick"; emphasized negotiating peacefully while also showing military strength.
Roosevelt Corollary: An addition to the Monroe Doctrine declaring that the U.S. could intervene in Latin America to maintain stability; justified American "policing" of the hemisphere.
Panama Canal: A man-made waterway across Panama built under U.S. control; greatly shortened sea travel and exemplified American engineering and imperialism.
WWI
Nationalism: Intense pride in one's nation; contributed to tensions leading to WWI.
Militarism: Policy of building up strong armed forces; fueled the arms race before WWI.
Alliances: Secret and public defense agreements; caused the war to escalate quickly after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand: The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was killed in 1914, sparking WWI.
Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria during WWI.
Allied Powers: Britain, France, Russia (and later the U.S. and Italy) during WWI.
Wilson’s Neutrality: President Wilson's initial stance to keep the U.S. out of WWI while trading with both sides.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: German policy of sinking ships without warning; helped push the U.S. into WWI.
“Strict accountability note”: Wilson’s warning to Germany that they would be held responsible for American lives lost at sea.
Sinking of the Lusitania: British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat, killing Americans and turning U.S. opinion against Germany.
Sussex Pledge: Germany’s promise not to sink passenger ships without warning; later broken, escalating tensions.
Zimmermann Note: Secret German proposal to Mexico promising land if they allied against the U.S.; outraged Americans.
Paris Peace Conference: 1919 meeting of Allies to negotiate peace after WWI; led to the Treaty of Versailles.
Wilson’s Fourteen Points: Wilson’s plan for a just and lasting peace, including self-determination and a League of Nations.
Guilt Clause: Part of the Treaty of Versailles blaming Germany for WWI; fostered resentment in Germany.
Reparations: Harsh payments Germany was forced to make after WWI; crippled its economy.
League of Nations: An international peacekeeping organization proposed by Wilson; U.S. never joined.
Reservationists: Senators who would accept the Treaty of Versailles only with major changes.
Irreconcilables: Senators who opposed the Treaty of Versailles entirely, refusing to allow U.S. involvement in the League of Nations.
Trench warfare: Brutal combat style of WWI involving entrenched positions and massive casualties.
War Industries Board: Agency that coordinated U.S. production during WWI to ensure military supplies.
Committee on Public Information: Government agency that used propaganda to build public support for WWI.
“Liberty Bonds”: War bonds sold to Americans to help finance WWI.
Espionage Act (1917): Law banning anti-war activities and speech seen as aiding the enemy.
Sedition Act (1918): Broadened the Espionage Act to punish criticism of the government during WWI.
Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty ending WWI; placed heavy burdens on Germany, setting the stage for WWII.
Progressive Era
Populists: Farmers and workers who called for reforms like free silver, direct election of Senators; influenced Progressives.
Election of 1896: McKinley’s win over Bryan; marked the decline of the Populists and a shift toward industrialism.
Progressive Era: A movement aiming to fix social, economic, and political problems through government action.
Muckrakers: Journalists who exposed corruption and injustice (ex: Upton Sinclair, Ida Tarbell).
Jacob Riis: Exposed urban poverty through his photography book How the Other Half Lives.
Lincoln Steffens: Investigated political corruption in The Shame of the Cities.
Ida Tarbell: Exposed Rockefeller’s unfair business practices in The History of the Standard Oil Company.
Upton Sinclair: Wrote The Jungle about unsafe conditions in the meatpacking industry.
The Jungle: Sinclair's novel leading to food safety reforms like the Pure Food and Drug Act.
Pure Food and Drug Act: 1906 law regulating food and medicine to protect consumers.
Meat Inspection Act: 1906 law mandating federal inspection of meat products.
Settlement Houses: Community centers like Hull House offering services to immigrants and the poor.
Jane Addams: Progressive reformer who founded Hull House in Chicago.
Hull House: Settlement house providing social services to immigrants.
National Consumers League: Advocated for labor rights and safer working conditions.
Sherman Antitrust Act: 1890 law aimed at breaking up monopolies; first major anti-trust legislation.
Teddy Roosevelt: Progressive president who busted trusts and championed conservation.
Northern Securities Case: Roosevelt broke up a major railroad monopoly; landmark trust-busting case.
William Taft: Progressive president who continued trust-busting but angered reformers by backing higher tariffs.
16th Amendment: Allowed the federal government to collect an income tax.
17th Amendment: Established direct election of Senators by the people.
Election of 1912: Four-way race; Woodrow Wilson won after Roosevelt and Taft split the Republican vote.
Roosevelt’s “New Nationalism”: Roosevelt’s call for strong federal regulation of the economy.
Wilson’s “New Freedom”: Wilson’s plan to restore competition by dismantling trusts.
18th Amendment: Banned the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol (Prohibition).
Volstead Act: Law enforcing Prohibition.
19th Amendment: Gave women the right to vote in 1920.
Roaring Twenties
Red Scare (1919–1920): Fear of communist revolution after WWI; led to raids on suspected radicals.
Red Summer (1919): Race riots in dozens of U.S. cities fueled by postwar tensions.
“Return to Normalcy”: Harding’s campaign promise to return America to pre-WWI isolationism and conservatism.
The Jazz Age: Nickname for the 1920s, highlighting new cultural developments in music and art.
New Morality: 1920s shift toward greater personal freedom, especially for women.
Flappers: Young women who challenged traditional gender norms through fashion and behavior.
Consumerism: 1920s surge in buying goods like cars and appliances; fueled economic growth.
Assembly Line Production: Mass production method perfected by Henry Ford; made cars affordable.
Mass Advertising: Helped spread consumer culture and desire for new products.
Nativism: Anti-immigrant sentiment; led to restrictive immigration laws.
National Origins Act (1924): Law that set strict quotas on immigration based on nationality.
Immigration Quotas: Limits on the number of immigrants allowed from each country.
Ku Klux Klan (1920s): White supremacist group targeting Blacks, immigrants, Catholics, and Jews.
“100% Americanism”: Nativist movement emphasizing traditional American values.
Christian Fundamentalists: Religious conservatives who rejected modern science and secularism.
Scopes “Monkey” Trial (1925): Trial over teaching evolution in Tennessee; symbolized clash between science and religion.
Theory of Relativity: Einstein’s scientific theory; challenged traditional views of physics and reality.
Quantum Theory/Uncertainty Principle: Scientific ideas questioning classical notions of certainty and predictability.
Cultural Relativism: The belief that cultures should be understood on their own terms; challenged racist assumptions.
Psychoanalysis: Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind influencing behavior.
The “Lost Generation”: Disillusioned American writers post-WWI (ex: Hemingway, Fitzgerald).
Great Depression and New Deal
Black Tuesday: October 29, 1929; stock market crash that triggered the Great Depression.
Great Depression: Severe economic downturn of the 1930s; high unemployment, bank failures, poverty.
Overproduction: Factories and farms made more goods than people could buy, leading to falling prices and layoffs.
Speculation: Risky investment practices, especially in the stock market, that contributed to the crash.
Buying on Margin: Purchasing stocks with borrowed money; worsened the crash when loans were called in.
Classical economics: Belief in a self-correcting economy without government intervention; rejected during the Depression.
Hoover’s “Progressive Individualism”: Hoover’s philosophy that individuals and voluntary efforts should solve economic problems, not the government.
Voluntarism: Hoover's call for businesses and charities to voluntarily help during the Depression, instead of federal action.
Work Relief: Programs that provided jobs rather than direct handouts; favored by Hoover and later FDR.
Direct Relief: Government cash payments to the needy; Hoover resisted this, FDR expanded it.
Keynesian Economics: Theory by John Maynard Keynes advocating government deficit spending to stimulate the economy.
Deficit Spending: Government practice of spending more money than it takes in to boost demand and create jobs.
20th Amendment: Changed the presidential inauguration date to January 20 to shorten the lame-duck period.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): New Deal project bringing electricity and jobs to the rural South.
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): New Deal program that employed young men in environmental projects.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC): New Deal agency insuring bank deposits to restore trust in banks.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC): Created to regulate the stock market and prevent future crashes.
Social Security Act: 1935 law providing pensions for the elderly, unemployment insurance, and aid to disabled Americans.
Bank Holiday: FDR’s temporary closure of all banks to prevent mass withdrawals and stabilize the system.
Emergency Bank Relief Act: Allowed only solvent banks to reopen after the Bank Holiday.
FDR Fireside Chats: FDR’s radio addresses reassuring the public and explaining New Deal programs.
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA): Paid farmers to reduce crop production to raise prices.
U.S. v. Butler (1936): Supreme Court case that struck down the AAA as unconstitutional.
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA): Attempted to regulate industry and labor conditions; later declared unconstitutional.
Public Works Administration (PWA): New Deal program funding large public construction projects (bridges, dams, schools).
Business Codes: Rules set under the NIRA to regulate wages, hours, and working conditions.
Section 7a: Part of NIRA giving workers the right to unionize and bargain collectively.
Schechter Poultry Corp v. U.S. (1935): Supreme Court case striking down the NIRA as an overreach of federal power.
“Share the Wealth” Movement: Huey Long’s plan to redistribute wealth; challenged FDR from the left.
Federal Emergency Relief Authority: Gave direct aid to states for unemployment relief.
Emergency Relief Appropriations Act: Shifted New Deal focus from relief to massive public works projects.
Works Progress Administration (WPA): Largest New Deal agency, providing jobs in construction, the arts, and public service.
Federal Writers Project: WPA program employing writers to document American life.
Federal Theater Project: WPA program funding live theater productions and performances.
FDR’s Court-Packing Scheme: FDR’s failed plan to add more justices to the Supreme Court to secure New Deal support.
Judicial Reorganization Bill: Proposed legislation to allow FDR to appoint more judges; seen as a threat to judicial independence.
Retirement Bill: Law encouraging older judges to retire, indirectly helping FDR shape the Court.
World War II
Fascism: A far-right political system emphasizing nationalism, militarism, and dictatorship (ex: Italy under Mussolini).
Communism: A far-left political system advocating for a classless society and state ownership of production (ex: USSR under Stalin).
Totalitarianism: A government that controls every aspect of public and private life.
Nye Commission: Senate investigation suggesting U.S. involvement in WWI was driven by arms manufacturers ("merchants of death").
Neutrality Acts (1935–1937): Laws meant to keep the U.S. out of future wars by banning arms sales to belligerents.
Spheres of Influence: Areas where major powers dominated political and economic life; key issue post-WWII.
Nazi Germany: Germany under Adolf Hitler; aggressively expansionist and responsible for the Holocaust.
Appeasement: Policy of giving in to aggressive demands to avoid conflict (ex: Britain and France at Munich with Hitler).
FDR’s “Armed Neutrality”: U.S. policy of preparing for war while officially remaining neutral before Pearl Harbor.
Destroyer-Base Deal (1940): FDR traded old U.S. ships to Britain in exchange for military bases.
Lend-Lease Act (1941): Allowed the U.S. to provide war supplies to Allies, moving away from neutrality.
Shoot On Sight Order (1941): FDR’s order to the Navy to fire on German U-boats after repeated attacks.
Neutrality Patrols: U.S. naval patrols aiding Britain before officially entering WWII.
U.S.S. Greer: American ship fired on by a German U-boat; used by FDR to justify more aggressive action.
Battle of Britain: 1940 German bombing campaign against Britain; first major defeat for Hitler.
FDR’s Embargo on Japan: U.S. banned exports of oil and materials to Japan, worsening tensions.
Bombing of Pearl Harbor: December 7, 1941; surprise attack by Japan, leading the U.S. to enter WWII.
Rosie the Riveter: Symbol of American women working in factories during WWII.
Tuskegee Airmen: First African American military pilots who fought in WWII.
Executive Order 9066: Ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during WWII.
Internment of Japanese Americans: Forced relocation and incarceration during WWII based on race.
D-Day Invasion: June 6, 1944; Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France.
U.S. “Island Hopping” Campaign: Strategy of capturing specific Pacific islands to move closer to Japan.
Manhattan Project: Secret U.S. project that developed the atomic bomb.
Cold War (Foreign and Domestic)
Truman’s Fair Deal: Truman’s domestic program expanding New Deal reforms (housing, education, healthcare); largely blocked by Congress.
GI Bill: Gave WWII veterans education and housing benefits; helped create the postwar middle class.
Taft-Hartley Act: 1947 law restricting labor unions’ power; passed over Truman’s veto.
National Security Act: 1947 law restructuring military and intelligence agencies (created Department of Defense, CIA, and NSC).
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA): U.S. spy agency created to gather foreign intelligence and conduct covert operations.
Policy of Containment: U.S. strategy to prevent the spread of communism abroad (George Kennan).
Truman Doctrine: U.S. promise to aid countries fighting communism (initially Greece and Turkey).
Marshall Plan: U.S. program giving economic aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII to stop communism.
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Military alliance of the U.S., Canada, and Western Europe to resist Soviet aggression.
Berlin Blockade and Airlift: Soviet blockade of West Berlin countered by massive U.S.-led airlift of supplies.
NSC-68: Secret U.S. document recommending massive military buildup to resist the Soviet threat.
Korean War: 1950–53 war between communist North Korea (with China) and capitalist South Korea (with U.S. support); ended in stalemate.
John Foster Dulles: Eisenhower’s Secretary of State; promoted "brinkmanship" and aggressive containment.
Peaceful Liberation: Dulles’s concept of freeing nations from communism without direct war.
Communist China: Mao Zedong’s Communist Party took over China in 1949; a major blow to U.S. containment policy.
Brinkmanship: U.S. strategy of pushing dangerous situations to the brink of war to intimidate opponents.
CIA Intervention: Covert operations (coups, assassinations) in countries like Iran and Guatemala to prevent communist governments.
2nd Red Scare: Fear of communist infiltration during the early Cold War; led to loyalty oaths and blacklists.
Truman’s Loyalty Boards: Investigated federal employees for ties to communism.
Alger Hiss Trial: U.S. diplomat accused of spying for the Soviets; convicted of perjury.
Pumpkin Papers: Documents hidden in a pumpkin by Whittaker Chambers that implicated Hiss.
Verona Traffic: Secret U.S. program decoding Soviet messages; confirmed fears of Soviet spies.
Rosenberg Trial: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed for allegedly passing atomic secrets to the Soviets.
McCarthyism: Practice of making unfounded accusations of communism; led by Senator Joseph McCarthy.
HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee): Congressional committee investigating communist influence in the U.S.
Army-McCarthy Hearings: Televised hearings that exposed McCarthy’s tactics and led to his downfall.
Interstate Highway Act: Eisenhower-era law funding the creation of a massive national highway system; justified as national defense.
Sputnik: 1957 Soviet satellite launch; triggered U.S. fears of Soviet technological superiority.
National Defense Education Act: Funded science and math education in response to Sputnik.
Eisenhower’s Farewell Address: Warned against the growing influence of the "military-industrial complex."
Vietnam War
Bay of Pigs Invasion: Failed U.S.-backed invasion of Cuba to overthrow Fidel Castro.
Cuban Missile Crisis: 1962 confrontation over Soviet missiles in Cuba; closest the Cold War came to nuclear war.
Geneva Accords: 1954 agreement temporarily dividing Vietnam into North (communist) and South (anti-communist).
Domino Theory: Belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would too.
Gulf of Tonkin Incident: Alleged North Vietnamese attack on U.S. ships; led to escalation of U.S. involvement.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: Gave President Johnson broad war powers in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.
NVA (North Vietnamese Army): Communist forces fighting against the U.S. and South Vietnam.
Viet Cong: Communist guerrilla fighters in South Vietnam.
Napalm: Flammable chemical used by U.S. forces; caused horrific burns.
Guerrilla Warfare: Hit-and-run tactics used by the Viet Cong and NVA.
Tet Offensive: 1968 surprise attacks by Viet Cong during the Vietnamese New Year; turned American public opinion against the war.
My Lai Massacre: U.S. troops killed hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians; fueled antiwar sentiment.
Ho Chi Minh Trail: Network of supply routes from North to South Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia.
Draft Deferments: Ways for young men to avoid the draft, often favoring the wealthy or educated.
Khe Sahn: Major 1968 battle between U.S. and North Vietnamese forces.
Kent State Shootings: 1970 shooting of student protesters by National Guard troops during antiwar demonstrations.
Nixon’s “Peace with Honor”: Nixon’s plan to withdraw U.S. forces from Vietnam while maintaining U.S. dignity.
Civil Rights Movement
Modern Civil Rights Movement: Post-WWII struggle for African American equality.
NAACP: Organization that challenged segregation through legal cases.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Supreme Court case declaring segregation in schools unconstitutional.
SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference): Organization led by MLK advocating nonviolent protest.
Montgomery Bus Boycott: Yearlong protest against bus segregation in Alabama, sparked by Rosa Parks.
Little Rock Nine Crisis: 1957 integration of nine Black students into a white Arkansas high school.
The “New Negro”: A term emphasizing racial pride and refusal to submit to discrimination.
The Great Migration: Mass movement of African Americans from the South to Northern cities.
Harlem Renaissance: Cultural movement celebrating Black art, music, and literature in the 1920s.
SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee): Youth-led civil rights organization focused on direct action.
Sit-ins: Peaceful protests where students sat at segregated lunch counters.
Letter from a Birmingham Jail: MLK’s defense of civil disobedience while imprisoned.
Nonviolent Civil Disobedience: Strategy of peacefully breaking unjust laws to highlight injustice.
March on Washington (1963): Massive civil rights rally; MLK delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.
Nation of Islam: Black nationalist religious movement advocating for separation from white society.
Black Panther Party: Militant group advocating self-defense and Black empowerment.
1950s America
Eisenhower’s Dynamic Conservatism: Moderate policy blending conservative economics with liberal social programs.
Baby Boom: Post-WWII population explosion.
Growth of Suburbs: Massive suburban expansion (ex: Levittown); symbol of postwar prosperity.
Levittown: Mass-produced suburban housing development.
White Flight: Movement of white families from cities to suburbs, often avoiding integration.
Education Boom: Growth in college and high school attendance after WWII.
2nd Great Black Migration: Continued movement of African Americans to Northern and Western cities.
Television: Became the dominant form of entertainment and news in American households.
1950s Conformity: Emphasis on traditional family roles and uniform consumer behavior.
Corporate Culture of the 1950s: Expansion of large corporations; loss of individuality.
The Beats: Writers rejecting materialism and conformity; precursors to the counterculture.
Youth Culture of the 1950s: Rise of rebellious youth icons like Elvis Presley.
1960s (Change and Reform)
1970s America
Stagflation: Combination of high inflation and unemployment.
Energy Crisis of 1970s: Oil shortages and high prices after OPEC embargo.
Yom Kippur War: 1973 Arab-Israeli war; led to oil embargo.
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; key player in 1970s energy crisis.
Election of 1968: Nixon wins by appealing to "silent majority" upset by 1960s unrest.
Nixon’s Silent Majority: Conservative, middle-class Americans supporting Nixon’s policies.
Nixon’s Southern Strategy: Appealed to white voters in the South by opposing civil rights advances.
New Federalism: Nixon’s plan to return power to the states.
EPA (Environmental Protection Agency): Created to protect the environment.
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring: Book raising awareness of environmental damage from pesticides.
26th Amendment: Lowered the voting age to 18.
Détente: Relaxation of Cold War tensions with China and the Soviet Union.
Pentagon Papers: Secret documents revealing U.S. government deception in Vietnam.
Watergate Scandal: Nixon’s attempt to cover up a break-in at Democratic HQ; led to his resignation.
CREEP: Nixon’s re-election committee; involved in Watergate.
War Powers Act (1973): Limited the president’s ability to deploy military forces without Congressional approval.
Campaign Funding Reform: Laws passed after Watergate to limit money’s influence on politics.
Ford’s WIN Buttons: Ford’s effort to fight inflation ("Whip Inflation Now"); largely ineffective.
Iran Hostage Crisis: 1979 seizure of U.S. embassy staff in Iran; humiliated Carter’s presidency.
Milliken v. Bradley (1974): Limited school busing to achieve desegregation.
Bakke v. University of California (1978): Allowed affirmative action but banned racial quotas.
1980s America
Equal Rights Amendment: Proposed amendment for gender equality; failed to be ratified.
STOP-ERA: Phyllis Schlafly’s movement opposing the ERA.
Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority: Religious conservatives mobilizing politically in the 1980s.
Graying of America: Aging U.S. population influencing politics and culture.
Congressional Reapportionment: Redistribution of seats in the House based on population shifts.
The New Right: Conservative movement opposing big government and liberal social policies.
Election of 1980: Reagan defeats Carter with promises of smaller government and strong defense.
Reaganomics: Reagan’s economic policies favoring tax cuts and deregulation.
Supply-Side Economics: Theory that lower taxes stimulate economic growth.
Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars"): Reagan’s proposed missile defense system in space.
End of the Cold War: Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) and collapse of the Soviet Union (1991).