lecture recording on 19 February 2025 at 10.28.01 AM

At the beginning of the Spanish-American War, focus was primarily on Cuba.
Theodore Roosevelt, assistant secretary of the Navy, had a global perspective and recognized the commercial potential of the Philippines.
- Notably interested in the vast market for products, including shoes for millions of Chinese feet.
The Philippines, a Spanish colony situated off the coast of China, became critical as Cuba fought for independence from Spain.
Both Cubans and Filipinos sought freedom from Spanish rule, making the U.S. interest in the Philippines strategic during the war.

Emilio Aguinaldo emerged as a key figure in the Filipino fight for independence.
- Aguinaldo was exiled by the Spanish due to his insurrectionist activities.
- The U.S. leveraged Aguinaldo's influence to rally support against Spanish rule during the war.
American forces helped Aguinaldo and his followers, leading to the defeat of Spain in the Philippines by August 13, 1898.

The Cuban conflict ended relatively swiftly, with American victory on July 17, 1898.
Following this, the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico, facing minimal resistance.
The war lasted approximately 114 days, concluding with the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898.
Results of the treaty included:
- Spain ceded Cuba, which was to become independent.
- The U.S. was set to occupy the Philippines and annex Puerto Rico.
- U.S. paid $20 million to Spain for its new territories.

The war resulted in 5,462 American deaths, with only 379 from combat; most casualties were due to disease caused by poor conditions.
The Philippines saw the impact of American imperialism with long-lasting implications.
Imposed control extended to Puerto Rico, which would become a U.S. territory distinct from the Philippines.

Shift towards imperialism included rationales such as economic opportunity, national glory, and religious altruism.
American imperialism justified through notions of racial superiority and the moral duty to 'civilize' other cultures.

Following the Spanish-American War, tensions escalated into the Philippine-American War in February 1899, driven by promises of independence that went unfulfilled.
The war lasted three years, ending in 1902 with significant American and Filipino casualties.
- Approximately 4,234 American soldiers died, while Filipino deaths numbered in the hundreds of thousands, largely among civilians.
American troops struggled with identifying combatants due to the guerrilla nature of Filipino resistance.

The conflict was marked by violent reprisals and torture; methods included the infamous 'water cure' for extracting information, raising ethical concerns about American military practices.
Coverage of the war in American media highlighted instances of brutality and violence committed by U.S. forces.

Aguinaldo’s capture did not end the conflict; guerrilla warfare persisted until 1902.
The Philippines remained under U.S. control, evolving into a U.S. territory, although citizens weren't considered American.
In contrast, Puerto Rico's transition included granting citizenship and self-governance more quickly than the Philippines.

Cuba achieved independence but remained under American oversight via the Platt Amendment of 1901, which allowed U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs.
- Key stipulations included:
  1. Prohibition against treaties with other nations.
  2. Restrictions on borrowing money.
  3. U.S. intervention rights in Cuba.
  4. Lease of Guantanamo Bay as a naval base.
Anti-American sentiment grew in Cuba, leading to the eventual repeal of the Platt Amendment in 1934.

By the end of the 19th century, Japan emerged as a rising power, aggressively expanding and industrializing.
Their victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) marked a shift in the balance of power in East Asia.