Advanced Behavioral Analysis: Positive and Negative Reinforcement Contingencies and Complex Schedules

Administrative Guidelines and Assignment Directions

• Support and Troubleshooting:     * If students experience difficulty downloading PowerPoint slide decks from the announcements, they should verify they are logged into Compella.     * If access is still denied, contact Dr. Sabato via email to resolve permission issues.     * Slide decks are also accessible under the "Files" tab in the program, specifically within the folder for "ICF PowerPoints."

• Weekly Requirements:     * Assignments due: Media, Yellowdig, attendance, and a specific assignment on reinforcement schedules.

• Schedule Identification Assignment (Unit 6):     * Task: Identify reinforcement schedules for provided scenarios (Fixed Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Interval, Variable Ratio).     * Requirements:         * Identify the schedule in the top box (no rationale needed there).         * Provide a detailed explanation of how each of the four schedules works to evoke behavior and responses.         * Develop novel, original examples for each schedule.         * Describe a naturally occurring reinforcement schedule from everyday personal life (avoid contrived work-related schedules if possible).         * Include a short conclusion.         * Mandatory: In-text citations and a reference page. At least $2$ references are required for every assignment. Anything not original thought must be referenced.

Fundamental Principles of Reinforcement

• Core Concepts:     * Reinforcement: Always increases the future frequency or strength of a behavior.     * Punishment: Always decreases the future frequency or strength of a behavior.     * Positive (+): Adds a stimulus to the environment.     * Negative (-): Removes a stimulus from the environment.

• Verbatim Definition (Clinical): Reinforcement is the occurrence of a behavior that results immediately in a consequence. The behavior is strengthened, meaning it is more likely to occur in future similar circumstances.

• Verbatim Definition (Creative Writing): A reinforcement schedule is a captivating, intricate system within behavioral psychology that orchestrates the rhythm of rewards, shaping behavior with precision. It is a dynamic framework finely trained to regulate the frequency, timing, and manner in which reinforcements are dispensed.

• Dimensions of Behavioral Change: Reinforcement can affect several aspects of behavior:     * Increasing the frequency.     * Increasing the duration.     * Increasing the intensity.     * Increasing quickness (decreasing latency).

Foundations of Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement (CRF):     * Definition: Reinforcement is provided for every single occurrence of the behavior.     * Application: Used specifically when introducing a new skill (skill acquisition) to establish a clear correlation between the behavior and the consequence.     * Equivalence: Essentially the same as a Fixed Ratio $1$ ($FR 1$) schedule.

• Intermittent Reinforcement:     * Definition: Some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior are reinforced.     * Application: Used to strengthen already established behaviors in a learner's repertoire and to maintain those behaviors over time.     * Goal: The ultimate objective is to "thin" the schedule to maintain behavior naturally.

Basic (Simple) Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

• Ratio Schedules (Count-Based):     * Reinforcement is contingent upon a specific number of responses or instances of behavior.     * Fixed Ratio ($FR$): Reinforcement is delivered after a set, non-changing number of responses ($e.g., FR 4$ denotes reinforcement every fourth response).         * Effects: Produces high rates of response. Responding is consistent after the first response within the ratio. Includes a "post-reinforcement pause" (a temporary plateau in responding after reinforcement is delivered).     * Variable Ratio ($VR$): Reinforcement is delivered after an average number of responses ($e.g., VR 4$ might reinforce after $2$, $6$, $3$, and $5$ responses, averaging to $4$).         * Effects: Produces the most consistent, steady, and high rates of responding. There is no post-reinforcement pause because the learner is uncertain when the next reward will occur.

• Interval Schedules (Time-Based):     * Reinforcement is contingent on the first correct response following an elapsed period of time.     * Fixed Interval ($FI$): Reinforcement is delivered for the first correct response after a set duration of time ($e.g., FI 5$ denotes reinforcement after the first correct behavior following a $5$-minute lapse).         * Effects: Produces a slow-to-moderate rate of responding. Often results in a "scallop" effect: a pause after reinforcement followed by an acceleration of responding at the end of the interval (anticipating the reward).     * Variable Interval ($VI$): Reinforcement is delivered for the first correct response after an average duration of time ($e.g., VI 2$ averages to reinforcement every $2$ minutes).         * Effects: Produces a constant, stable, but moderate rate of responding with very few hesitations.

Schedule Thinning, Progression, and Ratio Strain

• Adjunctive Behaviors: These are "time-filling" behaviors that occur while a learner is waiting for reinforcement ($e.g.,$ doodling, popping bubble gum). Behavior analysts must be careful not to inadvertently reinforce these irrelevant behaviors.

• Schedule Thinning: The process of gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval to make reinforcement less frequent.

• Progressive Schedules: Systematically thinning the schedule independent of the learner's behavior to assess the "break point" or the maximum amount of work they will do for a specific reinforcer.

• Ratio Strain: Occurs when a schedule is thinned too abruptly ($e.g.,$ jumping from an $FR 2$ to an $FR 50$).     * Result: Learners may demonstrate avoidance, aggression, unpredictability, or pauses in responding ($e.g.,$ a student assigned $30$ math problems when they usually do $5$).

specialized and Duration Schedules

• Duration Schedules: Reinforcement is contingent on the behavior being performed continuously for a specific period of time.     * Fixed Duration: Behavior must persist for a set time.     * Variable Duration: Behavior must persist for an average time.     * Difference from Interval: Duration requires responding throughout the entire interval; interval schedules only require one response after the time has elapsed.

• Alternative Schedules: Reinforcement is delivered when the requirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval schedule is met ($e.g.,$ reinforce after $6$ responses OR after $5$ minutes).

• Conjunctive Schedules: Reinforcement is delivered only when the requirements of both a ratio and an interval schedule are met ($e.g.,$ reinforce after $9$ minutes have passed AND an average of $3$ responses have occurred).

Complex and Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

• Concurrent Schedules: Two or more contingencies operate independently and simultaneously for two or more behaviors. This involves choice ($e.g.,$ potty training: continuous reinforcement for bowel movements but intermittent for urination).

• Multiple Schedules: Two or more basic schedules alternate (usually randomly) for a single behavior. A discriminative stimulus ($S^D$) is correlated with each schedule ($e.g.,$ a red light means $FR 5$, a green light means $VI 2$).

• Mixed Schedules: Identical to multiple schedules, but there is no $S^D$ to signal which schedule is in effect.

• Chained Schedules: Two or more basic schedules occur in a specific order. The completion of one schedule acts as the $S^D$ for the beginning of the next. The final link results in reinforcement.

• Tandem Schedules: Similar to chained schedules, but with no signaling $S^D$ between the links.

Quantitative Behavioral Analysis: The Matching Law

• Matching Law Definition: The rate of responding is typically proportional to the rate of reinforcement received from each alternative choice.

• Clinical Application: Learners match their behavior to the "richness" of the reinforcement available.

• Specific Effects:     * In concurrent interval schedules, participants usually do not allocate all responses to the richer schedule but distribute them proportionally.     * In concurrent ratio schedules, participants are sensitive to the requirements and tend to maximize reinforcement by responding primarily to the schedule with the lower ratio (the higher rate of reinforcement).

Classroom Scenarios and Knowledge Checks

• Scenario 1 (Tina): A student answers correctly and receives praise.     * Classification: Reinforcement (Positive).

• Scenario 2 (Mom): Mom asks nicely, child makes bed, Mom continues to ask nicely.     * Classification: Reinforcement for the Mom's behavior (asking nicely increased because child complied).

• Scenario 3 (Lottery): Man buys ticket at Gas Station A, wins, continues to buy at Gas Station A.     * Classification: Reinforcement.

• Scenario 4 (Loud Music): Teenager plays loud music; Mom sits by him; music playing decreases.     * Classification: Positive Punishment (Mom's presence added as a stimulus decreased behavior).

• Scenario 5 (Alarm): Alarm goes off, you hit snooze, sound stops, you hit snooze every day.     * Classification: Negative Reinforcement (Escape behavior; relief from aversive sound increases snooze-hitting).

• Scenario 6 (Paycheck): Receiving a paycheck every $2$ weeks.     * Classification: Fixed Interval ($FI$).

• Scenario 7 (Triathlon): Runners speed up when they see Gatorade stations at set points, then slow down after hydration.     * Classification: Fixed Interval ($FI$) with post-reinforcement pause and acceleration.

• Scenario 8 (Broken Car): Turning the ignition sometimes works on the first try, sometimes after many tries.     * Classification: Variable Ratio ($VR$).