F&F Exam 2
Pastures & Grazing Management
What is avoidance? Provide examples.
Defense to being grazed. Examples – Thorns, spikes, toxins
What is defoliation tolerance?
Being able to survive and tolerate grazing
How does the location of the growing point affect defoliation tolerance?
If the growing point is present, growing continues; if removed growth stops
What are the two primary resources for plant recovery? Which is the most important and why?
Water (Most important) & Carbohydrates
Why are leaves important to plant regrowth?
Leaves increase food producing capacity
What factors can cause poor grazing distribution? Which is the primary factor?
Distance from water (Primary), topography, vegetation types, pests, weather
What are some examples of pests that can affect grazing distribution?
Trees, prairie dog towns, weeds
List 6 different ways that livestock distribution could potentially be improved.
Water, Fencing, supplements, herding, burning, stream crossings
Relative to grazing systems, what is deferment?
Delay of grazing in a pasture until the seed maturity of the key forage species is reached
Relative to grazing systems, what is rest?
Nonuse of pasture for one year
Relative to grazing systems, what is rotation?
Movement of livestock from one pasture to another on a scheduled basis
What are the benefits of continuous season-long grazing?
Lower overhead cost, less management, maximum individual animal performance
What are the benefits of rotational grazing?
Increased pasture yields, carry more animals on the same acreage, better quality pastures, reduced selective grazing, better distribution of manure nutrients throughout the pasture, better gain per acre
BRIEFLY describe each of the 8 rotational grazing systems discussed in class.
Deferred rotation – 2 pastures, different starting pasture each year
Rest Rotation – some pastures rest while others have additional load
Intensive Early Seasonal – double stock ½ the season
Seasonal Suitability – fence the pasture into different vegetation types
High Intensity/Low Frequency – high grazing intensity followed by long non-use periods
Mob Grazing – ultra-high stocking density
Patch-Burn Grazing – based on grazing patterns
Continuous Season Long – allows animals to select the best diet
Which grazing system results in the greatest individual animal performance?
Continuous season long grazing
What are the reported benefits of mob grazing?
Even distribution of manure; trample litter
Minerals
What is the difference between macro and micro (or trace) minerals?
Animals require less microminerals
What is the most abundant mineral in the body? Second most abundant?
1st Calcium, 2nd Phosphorous
List 7 macro minerals required by livestock?
Ca, P, Na, Cl, Mg, K, S
List 8 trace minerals required by livestock?
Co, Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn
What are the basic functions of minerals?
Skeletal formation, protein synthesis, oxygen transport, fluid balance, regulating acid/base balance, Activators or components of enzyme systems
What are the common supplemental sources of minerals?
Inorganic (carbonate, chloride, oxide, sulfate) & Organic
Where are most minerals absorbed?
Small Intestine
What factors affect how minerals are absorbed and what is the effect?
Age, Organic vs Inorganic, pH of intestinal tract, binding agents, excesses or interactions with other minerals
What are the primary sources, both feed and supplemental, of each macro mineral?
Ca – Forages, animal by-products, Supplemental (Limestone & Calcium Carbonate)
P – Grains & Oilseeds, animal by-products, Supplemental (dicalcium & monocalcium phosphate)
Na – Forages & Grains; supplements (white salt)
Cl -
Mg – Plant proteins, Supplements (magnesium oxide, sulfate, and polysaccharide)
K – Forages & Oilseeds; supplements (potassium chloride)
S – feeds, water; supplements (ammonium or calcium sulfate)
What are the primary deficiency signs for each macro mineral discussed in class?
Ca – bone abnormalities & milk fever
P – weak & fragile bones, decreased growth
Na – craving for salt, pica,
Cl -
Mg – grass tetany
K – pica, rough hair coat, muscular weakness
S – hair and wool loss
What is phytate and why is it commonly added to swine diets?
K in grains and oilseeds; non-ruminants don’t produce phytase to break down phytate
What is the most desirable Ca:P ratio for most livestock? What can happen if it is too low?
2:1; urinary calculi
How is Mg solubility, and subsequent absorption, affected by pH?
As pH increases, solubility decreases
Animals have an appetite for which mineral? How can that be used to our advantage as managers?
Sodium, Can be used to increase grazing distribution
Sulfur is commonly toxic in livestock diets, what are the primary signs of toxicity?
PEM, star gazing, head pressing
What are the primary deficiency and toxicity signs for each trace mineral discussed in class?
Co – low appetite, growth; fatty liver
Cu - Depigmentation
Fe – anemia, listlessness,
I - Goiter
Mn – skeletal abnormalities, perosis,
Mo -
Se – White muscle disease
Zn – reduced testicular growth, parakeratosis
What are the primary sources, both feed and supplemental, of each trace mineral?
Co – forages, Supplements (carbonate, sulfate, glucoheptonate)
Cu – antagonists, Supplements (chloride, oxide, sulfate, AA complex, polysaccharide)
Fe – cereal grains, animal products, forages, Supplements (carbonate & sulfate)
I - Ca iodate, K iodata, Na iodide
Mn – forages, supplements (oxide, sulfate, AA complex)
Mo -
Se – plant and animal proteins; Supplements (selenate & selenite)
Zn – supplements (oxide, sulfate, AA complex)
Why is cobalt required by ruminants but not non-ruminants?
Vitamin B12
Which 3 minerals are the primary antagonists of copper absorption?
Cu, S, Mo
Selenium can be toxic in livestock diets in certain areas of SD, what are the signs of toxicity?
sloughing of hooves or tails, lameness, hoof deformation
Vitamins
List the 4 primary fat-soluble vitamins. How are they related to fat?
A, D, E, K ; absorbed with fat
List 6 examples of water-soluble vitamins.
B1, B6, B12, biotin, folic acid, niacin
Which vitamins are synthesized by rumen microbes?
Water soluble & K
Which vitamins are stored in the body?
Fat Soluble
What is an “international unit”?
Standard unit of potency
The stability of vitamins can be reduced by what 5 factors?
Time, temp, UV light, humidity, minerals
Describe the significant function and deficiency signs for each of the vitamins discussed in class.
Vitamin A – vision; fresh feeds & beta-carotene
Vitamin D – steroid hormone; sunlight
Vitamin E – Antioxidant; white muscle disease, hemorrhage, mulberry heart disease
Vitamin K – Blood clotting; poor blood clotting
Biotin – acid metabolism & gluconeogenesis, gene expression; skin & hair condition
Folic acid – enzyme substrate; poor growth, spinal bifida
Niacin – coenzyme; dermatitis, black tongue
Pantothenic acid – metabolism; goose stepping
B6 – metabolism; dermatologic & neurologic condition
Riboflavin – coenzyme; moon blindness
B1 – Enzyme cofactor; PEM, anorexia,
B12 – DNA methlyation; reduced appetite & poor growth, perosis
What are the primary sources of each vitamin discussed in class?
Vitamin A – fresh feeds, beta carotene
Vitamin D – Sunlight
Vitamin E – green forages
Vitamin K – rumen microbes
Biotin – feeds
Folic Acid – rumen microbes
Niacin – tryptophan
Pantothenic acid – rumen microbes
B6 – rumen microbes
Riboflavin – rumen microbes
B1 – rumen microbes
B12 – rumen microbes
Feed Additives
What are the 2 primary categories of feed additives?
Prevention or treatment of disease & improvement of growth or feed efficiency
What are 5 fed antibiotics (chemical or trade name)?
Tylan, V-Max, Stafac, GainPro, Flavomycin
Why is antibiotic resistance an important consideration for livestock producers?
Ineffectiveness with future use in livestock
Which agency is responsible for monitoring drug residues in carcasses at packing plants?
APHIS
What are 4 fed coccidiostats (chemical or trade name)?
Deccox, Bovatec, Avatec, Rumensen
What are 3 fed anthelmintics (chemical or trade name)?
Safe-Guard, Tramisol, Strongid
What does an anthelmintic do?
dewormer
Ammonium chloride is an acidifier commonly fed to which species? For what purpose?
Pigs ;Prevents urinary calculi
What are 4 situations where buffers may be beneficial?
High-grain finishing diet; fermented feeds; extreme heat or stress; loose stools
How do oral larvicides work?
Prevents larvae from maturing or directly killing larvae
What are 4 examples of oral larvicides?
Larvadex, Clarifly, Rabon, Solitude
Poloxalene (Bloat-Guard) is used to prevent bloat under what conditions?
Legume or lush grass
What are 3 commonly used ionophores? What does an ionophore do? Which of them will help prevent coccidiosis?
Modify fermentation; Rumensin, Cattlyst, Bovatec (prevent coccidiosis)
What is a beta-agonsist and what is the primary function of a beta-agonist?
Increase lean tissue accretion
Which beta-agonists are commercially available?
Optaflexx & Paylean
Which compound is used as an estrus suppressant? When is it commonly used?
Heifermax, feedlot heifers to reduce heat
What are some examples of biological feed additives that might be used in livestock diets? Why are they used?
Pre/Pro Biotics – increase good bacteria in GIT
Yeast – stabilize rumen environment
Enzymes - Digestion of various dietary constituents
What does VFD stand for when referring to feed additives?
Vet Feed Directive
What are the goals of the VFD program?
Promote juidicious use of antibiotics, protect public health, limit the development of antimicrobial resistance
What type of feed additives are covered by the veterinary feed directive?
Penicillins, tetracyclines, sulfas,
How did the VFD program change how producers can use antibiotics?
Antibiotics can go in feeds
What are the producers’ responsibilities with respect to VFDs?
Obtain VFD order from vet; provide copy to feed distributor; maintain copy of order for 2 years; provide orders for inspection and FDA
How long is a VFD order good for?
6 months
Who must keep records of VFD orders and how long must they be kept?
Producers for 2 years
Which federal agency is responsible for inspecting VFD orders?
FDA