Learning: Any relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience. 

Associative learning: The formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses. 

Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation. 

Antecedents: Events that precede a response. Consequences Effects that follow a response. 

Reflex: Innate, automatic response to a stimulus. 

Classical conditioning: A form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli. 

Operant conditioning: Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding.

Unconditioned stimulus (US): Something that elicits a response without any prior experience. 

Unconditioned response (UR): Response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience. 

Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not evoke a response. 

Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that, through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a learned response. 

Conditioned response (CR): Learned reaction elicited by pairing an originally neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Principles of Classical Conditioning:

• Acquisition: The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced. 

• Higher-order conditioning: Classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning—that is, a CS is used as if it were a US. 

• Informational view (of conditioning): A perspective that explains learning in terms of information imparted by events in the environment. 

• Expectancies: Anticipations concerning future events or relationships.

• Extinction (classical conditioning): Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Generalization

• Discrimination

Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction. 

Stimulus generalization: Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus. 

Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli. 

Conditioned emotional response (CER): An emotional response that has been linked to a previously nonemotional stimulus by classical conditioning. 

Systematic desensitization: Method of reducing fear by gradually exposing people to the object of their fear.

Vicarious classical conditioning: Classical conditioning brought about by observing another person react to a particular stimulus.

Operant conditioning: Learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding. 

Law of effect: Responses that lead to desirable results are repeated while those that produce undesirable ones are not. 

Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability of responses it follows. 

Operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box): An apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals.

Response contingent: Occurring only after a response. 

Superstitious behavior: A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary. 

Response chain: A series of actions that eventually lead to reinforcement. 

Shaping: Reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of a desired response.

Extinction (operant conditioning): Weakening of a learned response when it is no longer followed by reinforcement. 

Positive reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

Negative reinforcement: Strengthening a behavior by removing something unpleasant from the environment of the organism. 

Positive punishment (punishment): Any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response. 

Negative punishment (response cost): Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

Stimulus control: Stimuli present when an operant response is acquired tend to control when and where the response is made. 

Operant stimulus generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded reinforcement.

Operant stimulus discrimination: The tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with non-reward are present. 

Discriminative stimuli: Stimuli that precede rewarded and nonrewarded responses in operant conditioning. 

Primary reinforcers: Nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs. 

Secondary reinforcement: Reward that organisms learn to like. 

Secondary reinforcer: A learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer. 

Token reinforcement (reinforcer): A tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like.

Social reinforcer (reinforcement): Reinforcement based on receiving attention, approval, or affection from another person. 

Continuous reinforcement: Pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response. 

Partial reinforcement: Pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced. 

Partial reinforcement effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction. 

Schedule of reinforcement: Protocol for determining when and how often responses will be rewarded. 

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule: Rule specifying the number of correct responses a subject must give to receive reinforcement.

Variable ratio (VR) schedule: Rule for delivering reinforcement after varying numbers of correct responses. 

Fixed interval (FI) schedule: Rule for how long a set time period must pass before a subject’s correct response can be reinforced. 

Variable interval (VI) schedule: Rule for how long a varying time period must pass before a subject’s correct response can be reinforced.

Punishments work best when made immedediately afterwards (timing) along with being consistent with the punishment

•  Saying “bad dog” immediately it does undesirable behavior (rather than 10 mins after) and saying that phrase everytime the undesired behavior occurs (rather than saying it inconsistently)

Variable ratio (VR) schedule: Rule for delivering reinforcement after varying numbers of correct response. 

Fixed interval (FI) schedule: Rule for how long a set time period must pass before a subject’s correct response can be reinforced. 

Variable interval (VI) schedule: Rule for how long a varying time period must pass before a subject’s correct response can be reinforced. 

Punishment: Any event that decreases the probability of responses it follows.

Mild punishment temporarily suppresses a response

• Getting pinched

Severe punishment suppresses a response for a very long time (in some cases permanently)

• Traumatic events: car crashes

Punishment can cause escape, avoidance, and aggression

• Escape learning: Learning to make a response in order to end an aversive stimulus. 

• Avoidance learning: Learning to make a response in order to postpone or prevent discomfort.

Cognitive learning: Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation. 

Latent learning: Acquisition of knowledge or skills not immediately observable in an organism’s behavior. 

• I wonder what are other examples of latent learning that is not related to geography

Cognitive map: Mental representation of the environment. 

• Remembering the format of a neighborhood

• Is this a type/part of latent learning?

Feedback: Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; also known as knowledge of results (KR). 

Knowledge of results (KR): Informational feedback.

Programmed instruction: Any learning format that presents information in small amounts, gives immediate practice, and provides continuous feedback to learners. 

Rote learning: Learning that takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules. 

Discovery learning: Learning based on insight and understanding.

Observational learning: Acquiring information on how to perform new behaviors by watching others. 

Model (in learning): A person who serves as an example in observational learning.

• As a result of the prevalence/wide access to the media, its material influences its users to imitate similar behaviors presented in the song, movies, shows, etc.

• Parents play a large role in influencing their children’s behavior as they are around them all the time, and especially during their formative years