Review of Revolution, Enlightenment, French Revolution, Napoleon, and Latin American Revolutions

Questioning Attitude: Scientists began questioning previously accepted ideas about science and astronomy.
Rational World: Belief that the world is a rational place guided by natural laws (e.g., law of gravitation).
Scientific Method: An agreed-upon way of doing science to prove its correctness.
Copernicus:
- Founder of the heliocentric model of the universe (sun is at the center).
- Challenged the Catholic Church's geocentric model (earth is at the center).
Galileo:
- Popularized the heliocentric model using a powerful telescope.
- Faced trial by the Catholic Church and was forced to recant.
- Demonstrated the impact of technology (telescope) on science.
Isaac Newton:
- Proved the heliocentric model using mathematical calculations.
- Considered the father of the scientific revolution.
- Established that the universe is based on natural laws.
- The law of gravitation applies universally.

Questioned the best form of government, challenging divine right absolute monarchies.
John Locke:
- Advocated for three natural rights: life, liberty, and property.
- Argued that the government must protect these rights.
- Supported revolution if the government fails to protect natural rights.
- Inspired the French Revolution.
Baron de Montesquieu:
- Believed in a government divided into three branches (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent absolute monarchy.
- Emphasized checks and balances.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau:
- Social contract theory: government's power comes from the people, not the other way around.
  Putting the power at the hands of the people and not the government.
Voltaire:
- Championed freedom of speech.
- Advocated for separation of church and state.
- Opposed theocracies.
Adam Smith:
- Economist of the Enlightenment.
- Advocated for laissez-faire economics (government should not intervene in the economy).
- Laid the foundations of capitalism (private ownership of means of production).
Mary Wollstonecraft:
- Feminist thinker who argued that natural rights should apply to women.
- Advocated for women's rights.

Enlightened Absolutists/Despots: Monarchs who claimed to rule because they benefited their country, not by divine right.
Connection to the French Revolution: Inspired by Locke's ideas of overthrowing governments that don't protect natural rights.
Latin American Independence Movements: Revolutions led by figures like Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin, inspired by the idea of natural rights.

Causes:
- Social: Three Estates system:
  - 1st Estate: Clergy (privileged, no taxes).
  - 2nd Estate: Nobility (wealthy, no taxes).
  - 3rd Estate: Commoners (97% of the population, overtaxed).
  - Bourgeoisie (rich middle class) in the 3rd Estate resented the privileges of the 1st and 2nd Estates.
- Economic:
  - High price of bread (80% of income spent on bread by 1788).
  - Government debt from supporting the American Revolution.
  - Extensive costs of maintaining the Palace of Versailles (25% of tax money).
Phases:
- National Assembly: Moderate phase; King Louis XVI is a limited/constitutional monarch.
  - Tennis Court Oath: The 3rd estate agreed to create a new constitution.
  - Removal of special privileges of the 1st and 2nd Estates.
- National Convention: Radical phase, led by Robespierre; Reign of Terror.
  - King Louis XVI was beheaded.
  - Law of Suspects: Accusation of treason was enough for a guilty verdict.
  - Approximately 40,000 people were killed, mostly by guillotine.
- Directory: (Forget About this phase).
- Napoleon: Overthrew the government, became dictator and emperor. Overthrows the French Revolution.

Napoleonic Code (Code Napoleon):
- Guaranteed equality for citizens within the French Empire, spreading Enlightenment ideals.
- Religious toleration.
Favored the middle class (bourgeoisie).

Connection to the Enlightenment: Enlightenment ideas of natural rights inspired revolts against European colonizers.
Nationalism: Revolts against colonial control.
Toussaint Louverture:
- Leader of the Haitian Revolution. Haitian nationalist.
- Former enslaved person who led the revolt against French colonizers.
- Haiti created a constitution abolishing slavery and promoting equality.
Simon Bolivar:
- Led independence movements in northern South America with Venezuela and Colombia.
- Aimed to create one large country, Gran Colombia (short-lived).
- Inspired revolts against Spanish control using Enlightenment principles.

Occurred after Napoleon's defeat.
Aimed to restore order and stability in Europe.
Leaders from Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria wanted to crush ideas of revolution and nationalism.
Restored monarchies that had been overthrown and sought to create a balance of power in Europe.