Denominational Judaism, Modern Anti-Semitism, and the Holocaust
Denominational Variations in Synagogue Worship and Organization
Gender Separation in Seating:
In Reform and Conservative synagogues, all members of the congregation sit together regardless of gender.
In Orthodox synagogues, men are not permitted to pray in the presence of women to prevent distraction from prayers. Women sit in separate sections at the back, the side, or in a balcony.
Linguistic Differences:
Orthodox and many Conservative services are conducted entirely in Hebrew.
Reform services in North America are conducted primarily in English, though the use of Hebrew has seen an increase over the last decade.
Service Atmosphere and Organization:
Reform and Conservative services are characterized by a tightly organized structure, often aiming for unison among congregants.
Orthodox services are less synchronized; individuals arrive on their own schedules and progress through prayers at their own pace, resulting in a "loud din" of both prayer and conversation. Some practitioners find this more natural than unified prayer.
The Evolution of Modern Anti-Semitism
The "Jewish Question" and Post-Enlightenment Tension:
The nineteenth century initially offered Jews opportunities for integration into Western European society, but lead to new debates.
In 1843, German Protestant theologian Bruno Bauer argued that Jews were scheming against the world and blamed them for the hostility they faced, citing their refusal to abandon ancestral culture.
Historical Christian views of Jews as "Christ killers" underpinned these accusations.
Socio-Economic and Political Exploitation:
The late 1800s saw severe tensions due to industrialization (department stores and factories threatening middle-class shopkeepers) and the rise of nationalism.
Politicians used anti-Jewish sentiment to unite disparate social groups. Jews were scapegoated for contradictory ideologies, including Marxism, liberalism, communism, and rampant capitalism.
Propaganda in the form of cartoons, posters, and pamphlets was widespread, particularly in Germany, making anti-Semitic attitudes socially "respectable."
Anti-Judaism vs. Modern Anti-Semitism:
Ancient Anti-Judaism: Focused on religious practices and customs.
Modern Anti-Semitism: Introduced a racial dimension. Jews were portrayed as racially "other" and "alien." Even conversion to Christianity did not remove the perceived "racial taint."
The term "anti-Semitism" is credited to the German writer Wilhelm Marr ($1819$–$1904$). Following the economic depression of $1873$, Marr argued that Jews were too well-integrated and were "taking over."
The First International Anti-Semites' Congress was held in Dresden in $1882$ to promote these views.
Historical Case Studies of Anti-Semitism: France and Russia
The Dreyfus Affair (France):
In $1894$, Alfred Dreyfus ($1859$–$1935$), a Jewish army officer, was falsely accused of spying for Germany based on forged documents and a military cover-up.
The novelist Émile Zola championed his cause with the famous open letter "J'accuse!"
Though found guilty again in a second trial under "extenuating circumstances," Dreyfus was pardoned in $1899$ and eventually awarded the Legion of Honour.
Violent Persecution in Tsarist Russia:
Jews were labelled enemies of Christianity and targets of pogroms—violent popular persecutions involving arson, looting, beating, and murder. The government did not stop these acts.
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A fraudulent document created by the Russian secret police in the late 1890s. It claimed to be minutes of a secret Jewish meeting plotting global domination.
This fiction was distributed widely in Western Europe and published in the U.S. by Henry Ford. It remains in circulation despite being exposed as a fraud.
Zionism and Jewish Nationalism
Origins and Definition:
The movement sought to return Jews to the land of Israel to establish a nation. The concept is rooted in the Passover Seder phrase, "Next year in Jerusalem."
Zion is the biblical name for a hilltop in Jerusalem (the Temple Mount) described as God's dwelling place.
The Political Movement:
Formally established by Theodor Herzl ($1860$–$1904$), an Austro-Hungarian journalist persuaded of the need for Zionism by the Dreyfus Affair.
First Zionist Congress ($1897$): Held in Basel, Switzerland, with $200$ attendees. It called for a Jewish national home in Palestine (then controlled by the Ottoman Empire).
While other locations (Uganda, Australia, Canada) were considered, Herzl insisted on Palestine.
The Holocaust/Shoah ($1933$–$1945$)
Etymology:
Holocaust: From the Greek for "whole" and "burnt."
Shoah: The Hebrew term meaning "catastrophe."
Hitler's Ideology (Mein Kampf):
Adolf Hitler blamed Jews for Germany's $1918$ defeat. In Mein Kampf ($1925$), he claimed a Jewish conspiracy was destroying the "Aryan" world.
He repurposed linguistic terms: "Aryan" (Indo-European languages) was used for racial purity, while "Semitic" (Hebrew, Arabic, Aramaic) was used for impurity.
Legislative Persecution (1933–1935):
January 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor.
April 1, 1933: Government boycott of Jewish businesses; "Jude" and the Star of David were painted on windows.
April 1933: Professional exclusions: Jewish boxers excluded (April 4), dismissal of university faculty (April 5), and retirement of non-Aryan civil servants (April 7).
May 10, 1933: Public burning of books written by Jews.
Nuremberg Laws (September 1935): Revoked German citizenship, deprived Jews of legal rights, and prohibited marriage between Jews and those of "pure" Nordic blood.
Kristallnacht ("Night of Broken Glass"):
Triggered by the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by $17$-year-old Hershel Grynszpan.
On November 9, 1938, over $1,000$ synagogues were plundered, $300$ burned, and Jewish homes/businesses destroyed by storm troopers and citizens.
$91$ Jews were killed; $26,000$ were sent to concentration camps.
The Tragedy of the S.S. St. Louis
The Journey: In May $1939$, the ship left Hamburg for Cuba with $936$ Jewish refugees.
Denied Entry: Cuba refused entry (demanding an unreachable extra fee of per person). The United States and Canada also refused refuge.
Canadian Refusal: Prime Minister Mackenzie King did not intervene. Frederick Charles Blair, Director of the Immigration Branch, stated Canada "had already done too much for the Jews."
Outcome: The ship returned to Europe (Antwerp). While some were granted refuge in the UK, France, Belgium, and Holland, an estimated $227$ of these passengers were later killed in camps after German invasions.
The Final Solution and Death Camps
Ghettos: Established after the $1939$ invasion of Poland. Overcrowding led to deaths from typhus, tuberculosis, dysentery, and starvation.
Identification: Polish Jews (1939) and German Jews (1941) were forced to wear yellow badges in the shape of the Star of David.
The Killings:
Chelmno (December 1941): First gassing using exhaust fumes in sealed vans.
Belzec (March 1942): First camp to use stationary gas chambers.
Auschwitz-Birkenau: The largest extermination camp. Over $1$ million Jews (and tens of thousands of Roma, Poles, and Soviet POWs) were killed using cyanide-based insecticide. Up to $7,000$ people were gassed per day.
Death Marches: In the winter of $1944$, as Allies advanced, $250,000$ prisoners died being moved on foot or by train to Germany.
The Establishment of the State of Israel
Founding: The UN voted to create a Jewish state in Palestine. The State of Israel was established on May 14, 1948.
Conflict: Attacked the following day by Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. While peace treaties exist with Egypt and Jordan, the region remains volatile.
Law of Return (1950): Grants every Jew the right to immigrate to Israel.
Demographics:
Total population (2013): Approx. $8$ million ($75\%$ Jewish, $20\%$ Arab).
Ashkenazi: Jews of European descent (dominant in early years).
Mizrachi: Jews of Middle Eastern origin (majority today).
Beta Israel: Ethiopian Jews (approx. $130,000$), many evacuated between the late 1970s and 1991.
Holocaust Memorial Day (Yom HaShoah)
Inauguration: 1953.
Date: 27th of the Hebrew month of Nisan.
Observance in Israel:
State ceremony at Yad Vashem (Jerusalem).
Six torches lit by survivors symbolizing the $6$ million victims.
At $10:00$ AM, sirens sound for two minutes; the entire country stops for silent tribute.
Entertainment venues are closed by law; media focuses exclusively on the Holocaust.