Conservative Order (1815-1830)

The Western world underwent significant changes post-Napoleon.
New ideologies emerged, particularly liberalism and nationalism, stemming from the revolutionary upheavals initiated in France.
These forces contributed to revolts and revolutions shaking Europe, especially in the 1820s, 1830s, and the widespread revolutions of 1848.
Although many revolutions failed, by 1850, it was clear that the old order's days were numbered due to the changes brought about by the French and Industrial Revolutions.
The necessity for change was evident despite remnants of the previous order remaining in place.

Goals of the Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe, and their success in achieving these goals.

In March 1814, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed the Quadruple Alliance to defeat France and ensure peace.
After Napoleon's defeat, the Alliance restored the Bourbon monarchy in France under Louis XVIII and convened the Congress of Vienna in September 1814 to finalize the peace settlement.
The leader of the Congress was Austrian foreign minister Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859).

Metternich operated under the principle of legitimacy to restore monarchs and traditional institutions, as done in France and Spain.
Restoration examples included the Bourbons and various Italian states.
The treatment of Poland exemplified power considerations over legitimacy, with partitioning by Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
A nominally independent Polish kingdom was established under Russian authority.

Territorial rearrangements aimed at preventing one country from dominating Europe.
To counterbalance Russian gains, Prussia and Austria were strengthened.
France remained a significant power but was surrounded by defensive barriers against potential expansion.
New Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed from the former Dutch Republic and the Austrian Netherlands under King William I.

His escape complicated negotiations but did not alter the agreements significantly.
France's borders were reverted to those of 1790, and the country was made to pay indemnity and accept a five-year occupation.

The 1815 arrangements began a conservative reaction to contain liberal and nationalist forces.
Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Key figure in conservatism; viewed society as a contract needing preservation across generations. Advocated against sudden change.
Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821): Counterrevolutionary theorist who supported hereditary monarchy as essential for societal order.
Conservatives favored obedience to authority and organized religion, opposing revolutionary upheavals and liberal demands.

In response to fear of revolution, the Concert of Europe was established to maintain the status quo; it emerged from the reaffirmation of the Quadruple Alliance in 1815.

Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818).
- Addition of France to the Concert as a member.
Congress of Troppau (1820).
- Addressed revolts in Spain and Italy. Metternich proposed the principle of intervention to restore order.
Congress of Laibach (1821).
- Authorized Austrian intervention in Italy.
Congress of Verona (1822).
- Allowed France to quell revolts in Spain.

Established the right to intervene in states experiencing revolutionary changes threatening European stability.
Britain opposed intervention, marking a fracture in the Concert of Europe, which failed to manage the revolts in Latin America while maintaining it in Europe.

The successful independence movements were influenced by Enlightenment ideas among Creole elites.
Under Spanish and Portuguese control, Latin America saw uprisings from 1807 to 1824, with leaders like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
Britain opposed European interventions in Latin America, leading to the Monroe Doctrine (1823) guaranteeing independence for new nations.

Simón Bolívar emerged as the liberator of northern South America, having led successful military campaigns against Spanish forces by 1824.
José de San Martín focused on southern regions, achieving victories and eventually collaborating with Bolívar.
Political independence led to economic dominance by Britain, ensuring continued patterns of exploitation.

In 1821, Greeks revolted against the Ottoman Empire, supported by Europe, leading to Greek independence by 1830.

Governed by Tories with suffrage limited. The Corn Law of 1815 aggravated social discontent.
The Peterloo Massacre (1819) resulted in increased government repression.

Louis XVIII accepted some revolutionary changes but faced opposition from liberals and ultraroyalists.
Charles X's ultra-royalist policies led to rising discontent and instability.

Revolutions sparked by public unrest in Italy and Spain were crushed through intervention, highlighting the Concert's power dynamics and limitations.
The establishment of conservative governments across Europe reinforced the repressive status quo of the time.

Under Metternich, both liberalism and nationalism were viewed as threats to stability, leading to stringent controls across the Austrian Empire and Germanic Confederation.
The Karlsbad Decrees (1819) curtailed university freedoms and pressed for censorship of revolutionary ideas.

The period from 1815 to 1830 was characterized by a conservative backlash against revolutionary ideas, marked by significant political repressions and the formation of a network of alliances aimed to maintain a balance of power in Europe. Despite this, the seeds of nationalism and liberalism began to take root, setting the stage for future conflicts and shifts in power dynamics across the continent.