Gender Roles in Politics and Society (Historical) Study Notes

Gender Roles in Politics and Society (Historical)

  • Misunderstanding of Women's Roles in African Societies
    • Common perception: Women are dependent on husbands/male relatives.
    • Studies indicate that women bear greater responsibilities than men within families.
    • Colonial rulers' fears of women's spiritual capabilities in anti-colonial resistance led to efforts to eliminate influential women.
    • This topic explores women's roles as political actors across pre-colonial, colonial, and postcolonial eras, examining their experiences, status, and authority in governance.

Women's Political Roles in Pre-colonial African Societies

  • Avocations of Political Authority

    • Women exercised political authority primarily through:
    • Family and domestic affairs.
    • Agriculture and economic production/distribution.
    • Women's political roles were influenced by the economic structure and social stratification of their societies.
    • Variance in women’s status in centralized versus decentralized states:
    • Centralized States:
      • Complex hierarchical structures; women linked to the royal family had opportunities for authoritative roles.
      • Very few women directly participated in governance; royal women’s influence primarily derived from marriage and childbirth, cementing political alliances.
    • Decentralized States:
      • Political authority was more dispersed, offering women comparable control to men.
      • Women controlled their own activities and participated in political administration.
    • Origin stories across African cultures highlight women's foundational roles:
    • Women founded cities, led migrations, and conquered kingdoms (e.g., Songhai groups, Queen Amina of Kano).

  • Complementary Political Roles

    • Many societies showcased women’s complementary political roles, such as:
    • Swazi Society:
      • The Indlovukati (mother of the king) shared political authority in resource allocation and religious ceremonies.
    • Lunda Society:
      • Lukonkeketha (female ruler) governed alongside Mwata (the king).
    • Bamileke (Cameroon):
      • Women wielded equal political power as men.
    • Buganda Kingdom (Uganda):
      • The power of the king was matched by the queen mother, equal in authority for appointments, land allocation, and taxation.
      • The genealogy of royal matrilineage was officially recognized by queen mothers.
    • Yaa Akyiyaa's Example (Asante Kingdom):
      • Through her political maneuvering (1885-1888), she facilitated her son’s ascension to the throne while causing political fragmentation, exposing vulnerabilities to colonial forces.
    • Madame Yoko (Sierra Leone):
      • Mende chief active from 1885-1905, mobilized women for political power through Bundu, utilized warfare to expand her influence.
    • Lovedu (South Africa):
      • Women exerted equal or superior political power, queen mother had supernatural abilities and led the judicial system.
    • Oyo and Edo Empires:
      • Women in palace roles ensured stability and addressed women's interests in political spheres.
    • Igbo Institution (Omu):
      • Allowed women to act as societal mothers, exemplifying their influence.

Women's Political Roles in Colonial Africa

  • Colonial Ideology

    • Colonial masters depicted women as suited only for marital/reproductive roles, actively excluding them from politics.
    • Colonial governance utilized indirect rule, bypassing women’s political structures.
    • Example: The disregard for the position of female Omu in Igbo land; salaries were solely designated for male office holders.
    • Colonial rule neglected the African female stools and their supporting institutions.

  • Responses to Exclusion

    • Women did not passively accept exclusion; they actively participated in anti-colonial resistance and nationalist movements post-World War II.
    • Aba Women Riot (1929):
      • Protests against new taxes and protections for women's rights through traditional methods.
    • Various Protests Across Africa:
      • Instances in Tanzania, Kenya, Cameroon—demonstrated responses to economic and agricultural intervention by colonial authorities, including the Anlu Rebellion (1958-1961).
    • Influential Activists:
      • Leaders like Muhumusa (Rwanda), Nehanda Charwe (Zimbabwe), Empress T'aitu Bitoul (Ethiopia) played key roles in anti-colonial movements.
    • Realities of participation in nationalist struggles varied, with some women influencing electoral politics through economic power (e.g., market women).
    • In South Africa, women protested against discriminatory pass laws; despite mobilization, they faced systemic struggles.
    • Examples of individual political leaders: Mrs. Elizabeth Adeyemi Adekogbe in Nigeria and Constance Cummings-John in Sierra Leone, who pioneered active roles in government.

  • Evolving Women's Roles

    • On the Gold Coast (Ghana) women made strides in the nationalist struggle.
    • By 1951, women gained voting rights leading to female candidacies in municipal elections by 1953.
    • Key figures like Mrs. Evans Lutterodt contributed to political discourse and public engagement with party objectives.
    • Pioneers of female political representation: Keita (Mali) and Adepeju Esan (Nigeria), both breaking barriers in legislative councils.
    • Rebecca Njeri from East Africa was pivotal in organizing women's resistance against colonial agricultural practices.

Women’s Roles in Government in Postcolonial Africa

  • Challenges Persisting Post-Independence

    • Despite historical participation alongside men in liberation struggles, women's roles remained limited post-colonial, mirroring Colonial governance restrictions.
    • Early independence saw women struggling for political positions, even in actively politically engaged demographics (e.g., Yoruba women).
    • Example: No women elected in the Nigerian national legislative council (1950-1960).
    • United Nations (1986) data revealed that an average of only 7.1% of seats were held by women in national legislatures.
      • Politics viewed as a male domain often caused reluctance among women to engage.
    • Issues stemming from elite women's pursuit of interests disconnected from ordinary women’s needs also deterred broader participation.

  • Gradual Improvements

    • Increasing education among women and growing awareness of electoral influence are leading to changes.
    • Notable increases in women undertaking political roles: prime ministers, cabinet members, legislative representatives, and even presidents.
    • Globally, women’s political participation has risen since the 1990s, achieving formal equality such as the right to vote and to stand for election (though challenges persist with religious limitations).

  • Statistics of Women's Political Participation

    • According to a 1999 Inter-parliamentary Union report, women's representation in national parliaments in Sub-Saharan Africa rose to 11.5%, with countries like Namibia and Mozambique exceeding 20%.
    • Conversely, nations such as Nigeria and Togo reported less than 5% participation.
    • Despite historical underrepresentation, women have continually endeavored to occupy previously male-dominated spaces in politics.

  • International Influence

    • African women’s political engagement extends beyond national boundaries, influencing global feminist discourse on women’s roles in politics and power.