Ireland, 1916–1923

The period from 1916 to 1923 was one of the most important and violent in modern Irish history. It began with the Easter Rising in 1916, moved through the War of Independence, and ended with the Civil War and the setting up of the Irish Free State. These events changed Ireland politically, socially, and emotionally, and they also created the long-term division between pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty politics that still shaped Irish life for decades.

Irish nationalism during this period was driven by the desire for independence from Britain. Different groups used different methods to achieve this, including constitutional politics, armed rebellion, guerrilla warfare, and propaganda. Unionism, meanwhile, remained strongest in Ulster, where many people wanted to stay in the United Kingdom. The conflict between nationalism and unionism became even more serious after partition and the creation of Northern Ireland.

The Easter Rising

The Easter Rising was planned mainly by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, which believed that Britain’s difficulty was Ireland’s opportunity. The IRB formed a secret Military Council made up of Thomas Clarke, Seán Mac Diarmada, Pádraig Pearse, Joseph Plunkett, Éamonn Ceannt, and Thomas MacDonagh. They needed money and arms, so support from Irish Americans helped finance weapons purchases from Germany through Roger Casement and Joseph Plunkett. The Rising was deliberately linked to Easter symbolism and Pearse’s idea of blood sacrifice, meaning that the rebels believed their deaths could inspire future generations.

James Connolly and the Irish Citizen Army were also brought into the plan. Connolly had co-founded the Labour Party in 1912, and by January 1916 the Military Council had persuaded him to join the rebellion. The Irish Volunteers were vital to the plan, but Eoin MacNeill, who opposed rebellion unless Britain attacked first, did not know the full plan. The rebels tricked him by showing him the forged Castle Document, which claimed the British were about to disarm the Volunteers. When MacNeill discovered the forgery, he cancelled Volunteer participation, which seriously weakened the Rising before it even began.

Course of the Rising

The Rising began on Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, mainly in Dublin because the wider countrywide plan had fallen apart. Around 1,500 Volunteers and members of the Irish Citizen Army marched from Liberty Hall to occupy buildings across the city, including the General Post Office, the Four Courts, St Stephen’s Green, Jacobs Factory, Bolands Mill, the South Dublin Union, the Mendicity Institution, and the Royal College of Surgeons. Pearse and Connolly took the GPO as headquarters, and outside it Pearse read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic, declaring a provisional government and announcing Irish independence.

Although the rebels hoped to spark a national uprising, many civilians and even some bystanders did not immediately understand what was happening. The plan depended on arms landing in Kerry on the Aud, but the ship was captured by the British navy and sunk by its captain. Roger Casement was also captured after arriving by submarine. Without the weapons, and with MacNeill’s cancellation notice reducing the number of volunteers, the rebellion was already badly weakened before the fighting in Dublin fully began.

British Response

The British government was initially taken by surprise, with only about 400 soldiers on duty in Dublin on Easter Monday. Reinforcements quickly arrived from the Curragh and from Britain, and by Tuesday evening British forces outnumbered the rebels by about 5,000. The gunboat Helga shelled the city from the River Liffey, including the GPO area, and rebel positions such as St Stephen’s Green and Mount Street Bridge were eventually overwhelmed. At Mount Street Bridge, 13 rebels held up about 1,750 British soldiers for hours, showing how determined and effective local resistance could be even in defeat.

The Rising ended with Pearse’s unconditional surrender on Saturday, and the final surrender notices spread by 1 May. The destruction in Dublin was severe, the city centre was left in ruins, and civilian casualties were very high. The British military victory was complete in a tactical sense, but the political impact of their response was much more complicated, because the executions and repression that followed changed public opinion dramatically.

Consequences of 1916

Militarily, the Easter Rising failed, but politically it became one of the most important events in the creation of modern Ireland. Over 485 people were killed and at least 2,600 injured, including many civilians and children. Dublin suffered major destruction, worth about 4 million in today’s money, and compensation claims made the Rising extremely costly for the British government. Almost 3,000 people were imprisoned, many in Frongoch in Wales, which became known as a “university of republicanism” because revolutionary ideas spread there.

At first, many Dublin citizens were angry at the rebels, but public opinion began to shift after the executions. Fifteen leaders were shot in Kilmainham Gaol and Thomas Kent was executed in Cork, while Roger Casement was hanged in London. These executions turned many people in Ireland and abroad against the British authorities and helped Sinn Féin become closely associated with the Rising, even though it had not organised it. The Rising therefore became a symbol of sacrifice and national self-assertion, even though it had been a military failure.

Sinn Féin and the First Dáil

Sinn Féin’s rise was helped by the aftermath of the Rising, the Conscription Crisis, and the public anger caused by British policy. In the 1918 General Election, Sinn Féin won a landslide and refused to sit in Westminster. Instead, elected members formed the First Dáil in January 1919 in Dublin. The Dáil claimed to be the parliament of an independent Irish Republic and began building a parallel state with local government, courts, and fundraising systems.

Michael Collins played a major role in this period as Minister for Finance and Director of Intelligence. He raised loans from the public and organised a spy network, while de Valera went to the United States to seek recognition and support. The British government responded by declaring the Dáil illegal, but Sinn Féin continued to strengthen its authority and challenge British rule in Ireland.

War of Independence

The War of Independence began on 21 January 1919, the same day the First Dáil met, when an RIC patrol was ambushed at Soloheadbeg in Co. Tipperary. Two constables, James McDonnell and Patrick O’Connell, were killed by volunteers led by Dan Breen and Seán Treacy. The IRA used guerrilla warfare, meaning ambushes, hit-and-run attacks, raids, and sabotage rather than conventional battles. They attacked police barracks, carried out ambushes, and used flying columns to operate in rural areas.

Michael Collins helped organise intelligence gathering and assassination squads, including the Squad or Twelve Apostles in Dublin. These men targeted spies and British detectives to reduce the enemy’s ability to gather information. The British response included the Black and Tans and later the Auxiliaries, both of whom became notorious for reprisals against civilians. A reprisal was retaliation against local people in revenge for IRA attacks, and it usually increased support for the IRA rather than weakening it.

End of the War

The war continued through 1920 and 1921, with major events such as Bloody Sunday, the burning of Cork, and attacks on British authority across the country. By 1921, both sides were under pressure. Britain was spending heavily on the war, criticism was growing at home and abroad over the actions of the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, and the IRA was running low on weapons and ammunition. This led to a truce on 11 July 1921.

The truce opened the way for negotiations in London. The Irish delegation included Arthur Griffith, Michael Collins, Robert Barton, Éamonn Duggan, and George Gavan Duffy, while de Valera stayed in Ireland. The British side included Lloyd George, Winston Churchill, Austin Chamberlain, and Lord Birkenhead. The talks were difficult because the Irish wanted a republic and no partition, while Britain wanted Ireland to remain within the Empire and protect Ulster unionists.

Anglo-Irish Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed on 6 December 1921. It created the Irish Free State as a dominion within the British Empire rather than a republic. Ireland would have its own parliament and control over many internal matters, but the British king remained head of state and TDs had to swear an oath of allegiance. Britain also kept three naval ports, Northern Ireland remained separate, and a boundary commission was promised to determine the border.

The Treaty divided opinion sharply. Supporters such as Griffith, Collins, and Cosgrave argued that Ireland could not continue fighting, that the Treaty was a stepping stone to full independence, and that it guaranteed peace. Opponents such as de Valera, Cathal Brugha, and Austin Stack argued that it did not deliver the republic that people had fought for, that it forced an oath to the Crown, and that it accepted partition. The Dáil accepted the Treaty by 64 votes to 57, and de Valera resigned.

Civil War

The Treaty split the independence movement and led to Civil War between pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty forces. The deaths of Arthur Griffith in August 1922 and Michael Collins ten days later weakened the pro-Treaty side politically and emotionally. Collins was killed in an ambush at Béal na Bláth, and his funeral drew a huge crowd, showing how significant he had become to the new state.

The Free State government, now led by W. T. Cosgrave, took a tougher line against the anti-Treaty side, who were often called Irregulars. The Special Powers Act allowed the arrest, trial, imprisonment, and even execution of IRA members. Fighting continued until 1923, when de Valera and Frank Aiken persuaded the IRA to agree to a ceasefire on 24 May. The Civil War left deep divisions in Irish society and politics, with families and communities split by loyalty to either side.

Legacy of Civil War

The Civil War had a lasting legacy because it caused deaths, destruction, and long-term bitterness. Up to 1,500 people were killed and roughly 38 million worth of damage was done to property. Dublin had to be rebuilt, and many personal and political relationships were permanently damaged. The conflict made the divisions between pro-Treaty and anti-Treaty politics much stronger than before.

After the war, Cumann na nGaedheal formed from the pro-Treaty side and later became Fine Gael, while Fianna Fáil emerged from the anti-Treaty tradition. The Irish Free State Constitution of 1922 created the Oireachtas, An Garda Síochána, and a reorganised courts system. However, the boundary commission did not produce the changes many expected, and the border remained largely unchanged, which disappointed many nationalists.

Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland was established under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had its own parliament and home rule-style government, but it remained part of the United Kingdom. This was partition, meaning the separation of the island into two political entities. James Craig became the first prime minister of Northern Ireland, and the Unionist Party dominated politics there.

The region also developed deep sectarian divisions. Sectarianism means hatred or conflict based on religious difference, especially between Protestant unionists and Catholic nationalists. The Orange Order, the RUC, and the B-Specials were closely identified with unionist control, and many Catholics felt excluded or unsafe. This helped create a cycle of discrimination and violence that had lasting effects.

Commemoration

Commemoration means remembering important people or events from the past in a respectful way. The 1916 Rising is commemorated because it became seen as the start of the process that led to independence, even though it was a military defeat. Commemorations can include ceremonies, memorials, historical research, and cultural events, but they can also be controversial when the event involved violence and death.

The centenary in 2016 led to many commemorative events across Ireland. This reflected the fact that the Rising was not only a Dublin event; people from many counties were involved, and many communities wanted to remember their local connections to it. Commemoration is important because it helps societies understand how the past shaped the present, but it also requires balance and sensitivity.