GCSE Geography B Paper 1: Global Geographical Issues - Revision Notes

Hazardous Earth

Atmosphere as a Global System

• Heat is transferred around the Earth due to pressure differences and ocean currents.
• Ocean currents: Cold, salty water sinks at the Poles, flows towards the Equator, and warms, creating a convection current.
• Pressure differences: Land heats and cools quickly, forming low pressure in summer and high pressure in winter. Sea takes longer to heat and cool, forming high pressure in summer and low pressure in winter.
• The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) near the Equator causes heavy rainfall due to rising warm tropical air, creating low pressure.
• Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells complete the global circulation model.

Climate Change - Past

• Climate has changed naturally over time due to:
  1. Eruption theory: Volcanic ash reflects sunlight, cooling the planet.
  2. Asteroid collision theory: Ash and dust block sunlight, cooling the climate.
  3. Sunspot theory: More sunspots increase solar energy, warming the planet.
  4. Orbital change theory: Changes in Earth's orbit and tilt affect radiation received, influencing climate.
• Evidence from ice cores (CO2 levels), tree rings (growth indicates wet/warm years), and historical sources.

Climate Change - Present and Future

• Human activities enhance the greenhouse effect by producing greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane).
• Global warming: Rise in average temperature, sea levels, shrinking Arctic sea ice, and glaciers.
• Potential impacts: Increased floods, droughts, stronger storms, farming changes, and climate refugees.
• Predicting future climate change is difficult due to uncertainties in population growth, economies, and energy choices.

Tropical Cyclones

• Rotating systems of clouds and storms forming over warm tropical waters (26.5°C).
• Winds exceed 118 km/h.
• Known as hurricanes (Atlantic), typhoons (Pacific), and cyclones (Indian Ocean).
• Formation requires: warm ocean, strong winds, and a strong Coriolis force.

Tropical Cyclone Hazards

• Hazards include strong winds, storm surges, intense rainfall, and landslides.
• Bangladesh is vulnerable due to rural population on flood-prone land, urbanization, unplanned settlements, and low GDP.

Tropical Cyclone Management

• Bangladesh uses forecasting, satellite technology, warning systems, evacuation strategies, and surge defenses.
• The USA uses similar methods but faced challenges during Hurricane Katrina due to socioeconomic factors and levee failures.

Earth's Structure & Plate Tectonics

• Earth's layers: lithosphere (continental and oceanic crust), asthenosphere (partly molten), mantle, outer core (liquid), and inner core (solid).
• Convection currents caused by geothermal energy move tectonic plates.

Plate Boundaries & Hazards

• Conservative plates: slide past each other causing earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).
• Divergent plates: move apart with magma rising to form shield volcanoes (e.g., Iceland).
• Convergent plates: collide, with denser plate subducting, forming composite volcanoes and violent earthquakes (e.g., Andes).
• Earthquake magnitude is measured on the Richter Scale (logarithmic).
• Earthquakes beneath the seabed can generate tsunamis.

Tectonic Hazard Impacts & Management

• Haiti (2010): Magnitude 7.0 earthquake caused widespread destruction due to shallow focus, poor building regulations, and recovery challenges.
• Japan (2011): Tsunami following a magnitude 9.0 earthquake caused significant damage and nuclear meltdowns. Japan prepares with drills, emergency kits, and earthquake-proof buildings.
• Nepal (2015): Developing countries receive aid and prepare with safer housing designs.

Development dynamics

Defining and Measuring Development

• Development is measured using economic (GDP per capita), social (literacy rate), and political indicators (corruption).
• The Human Development Index (HDI) averages life expectancy, literacy, schooling length, and GDP per capita.
• Economic development correlates with improved development indicators.
• Demographic indicators like birth rate, gender equality, and fertility rate also measure development.

Global Inequality & Development Theories

• The Brandt Report divided the world into HICs and LICs.
• The 'development gap' exists between rich and poor nations with variations within countries.
• MICs, NICs, and RICs have emerged since the 1980s.
• Rostow model: Countries pass through five stages: traditional society, pre-conditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity, and age of high mass consumption.
• Frank’s dependency theory: Core regions (developed nations) exploit periphery regions for raw materials.

Approaches to Development

• Top-down development: Large, expensive schemes planned by governments or TNCs.
• Bottom-up development: Small-scale, inexpensive projects involving experts working with communities.
• Example: Sardar Sarovar Dam (top-down) - benefits India's cities and farmers but displaced local residents.
• Example: Biogas plants (bottom-up) - reduce respiratory illnesses, free up girls' time, and provide fertilizer.

Influence of Location and Context on Development

• India's central location in the Indian Ocean and long coastline are significant for its growth.
• India's location in Asia drives economic development due to the growth of China, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
• India’s membership in international organizations.
• Topography and political relationships create barriers with neighboring countries.

Globalization & Economic Change in India

• Globalization has increased India's exports, output, and GDP, reducing unemployment and poverty.
• Economic policies encouraging FDI have supported a market economy.
• Technological advancements in shipping, containerization, and aircraft have accelerated globalization.

Positive and Negative Impacts of Economic Growth in India

• Social impacts: Higher education levels among women and changes in marriage patterns.
• Economic impacts: Increased employment in textiles and opportunities for women.
• Environmental impacts: Increased greenhouse gas emissions and lack of clean water and sanitation in unplanned settlements.

Changing International Role of India

• India's influence is growing in Asia and globally through its membership in the G20.
• India can help resolve global problems and supports investment in developing countries through the World Bank.
• India faces challenges in infrastructure development due to insufficient tax revenue.

Challenges of an urbanising world

Increasing Urbanization

• Urbanization: Rise in the percentage of people living in urban areas.
• Africa and Asia are expected to see the biggest increases.
• Most of the world’s largest cities are now in emerging countries.
• Causes: rural-urban migration and natural increase.
• Megacities have over 10 million people.
• World cities have a significant global influence.

Socio-Economic Processes & Change

• Economic growth creates new jobs, driving Lilongwe's growth through rural-urban migration.
• New York’s knowledge economy attracts international migrants.
• De-industrialization has led to population decline in Detroit.
• Informal economy is large in developing countries.
• India’s informal economy exists in factories and construction.
• New York’s knowledge economy is valuable and the informal economy contributes to catering.

Changing Land Use

• New York grew due to its harbor, leading to suburbanization.
• Counter-urbanization from 1950-1980 caused population fall.
• Re-urbanization has been encouraged by knowledge economy and brownfield regeneration since 1980.
• Land use patterns include commercial (CBD), industrial (inner city or city edge), and residential (older near center, newer in suburbs).

Megacity Location, Context, Growth, Function & structure

• Mumbai is India's main commercial city and a world city.
• Colonized by the Portuguese and British, its economy grew from cotton, textiles, and its port.
• On an estuary, well-connected by port and air.
• Mumbai’s structure loosely follows that of developing cities.

Rapid Megacity Growth

• Mumbai experienced hyper-urbanization with 1000 new migrants daily.
• Reasons for growth: rural-urban migration and natural increase.
• Population growth has created new suburbs like Navi Mumbai.
• Rapid growth pressure on land and rising prices.

Opportunities & Challenges

• India’s middle class is growing due to job opportunities and rising incomes.
• Challenges: insufficient tax income, weak government, housing shortages, water and air pollution, and traffic congestion.

Improving Quality of Life

• Top-down development: 'Vision Mumbai' aims to improve housing, green spaces, and transport.
• Bottom-up development: LSS health charity in Dharavi provides education and community work.
• Advantages and disadvantages exist for both approaches.