Human Bio final

The Scientific Method – Ch 1

Key Questions

Describe the steps of the scientific method: Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Collect/Analize data, Conclusion

Interpret a bar graph


Atoms & Bonds – Ch 2

Key Concepts

Describe the properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons: 

Proton- found in nucleus, positive

Neutons- orbiting around nucleus, neutral

Electrons- found in nucleus, negative


Define how many covalent bonds can be formed by hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon: 


Water – Ch 2

Key Concepts

Describe hydrogen bonds and compare them to covalent and ionic bonds- hydrogen bond is formed when the slightly positive charged hydrogen of one molecule is attraced to the slightly negative charge of the other molecule- typically weak bond. -covailent bonds are strong


Contrast acids to bases and interpret the pH scale- Acids are below 7, neutral is 7, base is above 7



Macromolecules I – Ch 2

Key Concepts

Contrast dehydration reactions to hydrolysis reactions:

Dehydration builds polymers. water molecule is removed to bond monomers together

hydrolysis breaks apart polymers, adding a water molecule to break monomers apart



Know the monomers for each of the four types of macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)

Carbohydrates: Glucose

Proteins:

Lipids: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

Nucleic acids:



Macromolecules II – Ch 2

Key Concepts

Detail the four levels of protein structure:

Primary structure, Secondary structure, Tertiary structure, Quaternary structure


What is denaturation? How do you denature a protein?

break bonds that are holding the secondary and tertiary structures, the structure unravels, changing the shape.


The Cell I – Ch 3

Key Concepts

Describe diffusion and osmosis:

Diffusion- Movement of molecules from high to low concentration gradient

Osmosis- movement of water across a membrane- moving from low to high concentration


Describe what happens to cells in hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions:

Hypertonic- solution with high solutes

Hypotonic- solution with low solutes

Isotonic- solution with equal solutes



The Cell II – Ch 3

Key Concepts

Contrast the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough- studded with ribosomes

Smooth- synthesizes lipids and phospholipids


Detail the function of: ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, and lysosomes

Ribosomes- composed of proteins and RNA, used to synthensize protien

Golgi Apparatus- involved in processing, packaging, and secretion of protiens

Nucleus- stores genetic information

Lysosomes: breaks down foreign matter, performs auto digestion where parts of the cell are broken down


Cellular Respiration – Ch 3

Key Concepts

Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic- Requires oxygen

Anaerobic- does not require oxygen


Describe the location of each of the following reactions: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, and the citric acid cycle.  

Glycolysis- Occurs in cytoplasm, yields 2 pyruvates, 2 ATP, NADH

Pyruvate oxidation- Occurs in matrix of mitochondria, yields 2 acetyl-CoA, NADH, 2 CO2

Citric acid cycle- in matrix of mitochondria, yields 2 ATP, NADH, FADH2, 4 CO2


Describe the role oxygen plays during cellular respiration 


Mitosis – Ch 19

Key Concepts

Contrast autosomes and sex chromosomes

Autosomes- 22 pairs, found in both M & F, does not determine gender

Sex Chromosomes- 1 pair, determines gender


Outline the major events that occur during the five phases of mitosis and cytokinesis:

Mitosis:

1- Prophase- mitotic spindles form

2- Prometaphase- Mitotic spindles attach to centomeres

3- Metaphase- chromosomes align at the equater

4- Anaphase- sister chromatids pulled apart by attached spindle fibers

5- Telophase chromosomes unwind


Cytokinesis:

cytoplasm is divides into two cells



Meiosis – Ch 19

Key Concepts

Outline the major steps of meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiosis I- halve chromosome number and make gametes

Meiosis II- make 4 gametes total


Describe the two sources of genetic variation created during meiosis (crossing over and independent assortment), and at which stage of meiosis they occur: 

crossing over- exchange of DNA between paired homologous chromosomes- prophase I. 

independent assortment-genes randomly sort- metaphase I



Cancer – Ch 20

Key Concepts

Describe the characteristics of cancerous cells and what role they play in cancer development: non specialized, abnormal nucleus, fail to undergo apoptosis, unlimited ability to replicate, lack contact inhibition, undergo angiogenisis and metastasis



Contrast radiation therapy and chemotherapy: Radiation is for localized cancer using xrays or gamma rays which damages cancer cell DNA. Chemotherapy is for metastasized cancer, the chemicals interfere wih cell division, dna repair, and replication.



Patterns of Inheritance I – Ch 21

Key Concepts

Contrast dominant and recessive alleles: Dominant is what masks or hides recessive



Determine the genotypic and phenotypic ratios within a monohybrid cross using Punnett squares (AA Aa)



Patterns of Inheritance II – Ch 21

Key Concepts

Interpret pedigree charts including the mode of inheritance and genotype of individuals (the possibilities on the exam will be autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant)


Outline the main features of polygenic inheritance, multifactorial traits, and pleiotropy



DNA Biology – Ch 22

Key Concepts

Describe the structure of DNA vs. the structure of RNA

DNA: 2 strands, deoxyribose, ATCG base, sugar/phosphate backbone
RNA: 1 strand, ribose, AUCG base, sugar/phosphate backbone


What are the end products of: DNA replication, transcription and translation? 

Replication: daughter strand

Transcription: (Making RNA into DNA) DNA

Translation: Polypeptide



Nervous System I – Ch 14

Key Concepts

Know the parts of the neuron and their functions: dendrites, cell body, axon and axon terminals:

Dendrites: Receives signals from sensory receptors or other neurons

Cell Body: Contains the nucleus & other organelles

Axon: Conducts signal down neuron

Axon Terminals: End of the neuron where signal is relayed



Explain what is happening in and around the axon during depolarization and repolarization. Where are the Na+ and K+ ions? If they are moving, which way are they moving and why?

Depolarization: sodium gates open, sodium ion diffuses from high to low concentration, sodium ion diffuses from the outside of the axon to the inside of the axon, makes inside axon more positive (+35mv)

Repolarization: As Na+ gates close, K+ gates open, K+ diffuses from high to low concentration, K+ diffuses from inside to outside, Makes inside axon more negative (-70mv)




Nervous System II – Ch 14

Key Concepts

Outline the main structures of the brain and their functions, including: cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, hypothalamus, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata

Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of grey matterthat covers the hemispheres, accounts for sensations, voluntary movement, and conciousness

Corpus Callosum: Extensive bridge of nerves that allow the two cerebral hemispheres to communicate

Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis, regulates hunger, sleep, thirst, body temp, and water balance.

Cerebellum: Largest portion of the brain, divided into two hemispheres

Medulla Oblongata: Contains reflex centers for regulating heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing


Contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system: when are each of these systems active?

Parasympathetic: Active during rest or digestion

Sympathetic: active during times of emergency, excitement, or exercise. 


Sensory System – Ch 15

Key Concepts

Know the types of sensory receptors and give an example of each (chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors)

Chemoreceptor: Responds to chemical substances, taste/ smell

Photoreceptor: Responds to light energy, sight/ eyes

Mechanoreceptors: Stimulated by forces or pressure, hearing/ touch

Thermoreceptor: Stimulated by temperature changes, touch


Compare and contrast rods and cones

Rods: very sensitive to light, suited for night vision, located throughout the whole retina, allows for peripheral vision

Cones: 3 types- red green and blue, sensitive to color, concentrated to fovea


Epithelium & Homeostasis – Ch 4

Key Concepts

Detail the different classes of epithelial cells (simple, pseudostratified, and stratified), the different cell shapes (squamous, cuboidal, and columnar).

Epithelial cells: Simple squamous (lines air sacs of lungs and blood vessels), simple cuboidal (glands), Simple columnar (lines digestive tract and uterin tubes), Psudostratisied columnar (lining of trachea), Stratified squamous (outer layer of skin, nose, mouth, esophogus, andal canal, cervix)


Be able to determine if a pathway is negative feedback or positive feedback:

Negative feedback: effect is opposite of stimulus

Positive feedback: effect is the same as the stimulus



Muscular System I – Ch 13

Key Concepts

Compare and contrast the three muscle types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac

Skeletal Muscle: a group of myofibrils make up muscle fibre, a group of muscle fibres males a muscle fascicle, a group of vesicle makes muscle belly

Smooth Muscle:


Detail the steps in order of muscle contraction starting from when the electrical signal reaches the muscle fiber and ending with the muscle relaxing

Action potential → skeletal muscle cell, action potential on surface → cell interior, calcium binds to troponin which pulls tropomyosin away exposing myosin binding sites, myosin heads bind to actin filaments to form a cross bridge, myosin pulls actin inwards in a power stroke, ATP binds to myosin and detaches it from actin filament, ATP → ADP gives energy to cock the myosin head to the power stroke positions, head reattatches to start cycle again, sarcomere will continue to shorten a long as the motor neuron sends action potentials, when signals stop calcium is activley transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, tropomyosin covers myosin binding sites and the sarcomere relaxes



Muscular System II – Ch 13

Key Concepts

Explain how the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit influences fine motor control

The smaller the motor unit, the smaller and more precice the muscle movement (more fine motor control) and the larger the motor unit, the larger and less exact the muscle movement


Name the four energy molecules used by muscles to make ATP, which is the preferred source of energy?

Glycogen, Triglycerides, Glucose, and fatty acids- glycogen is the prefferred source.


Digestive System I – Ch 9

Key Concepts

Contrast mechanical vs chemical digestion

Chemical: stomach enzymes

Mechanical: chewing, stomach moving


What do the following enzymes break down and where are they released from: pepsin, amylase, trypsin

Pepsin: digests protiens

Amylase: digests carbohydrates

Trypsin: digests protiens



Digestive System II – Ch 9

Key Concepts

Describe the role of the pancreas and role of each of the enzymes and hormones secreted by the pancreas

Pancriatic amylase: digests starch

Trypsin: digests protein

Pancreatic lipase: digests fat


Outline the function of the large intestine- dries out and stores feces



Respiratory System – Ch 10

Key Concepts

Describe the function of pulmonary surfactant

prevents lungs from colapsing


Describe when pressures for O2 and CO2 are high/low in the alveoli/tissues and which direction O2 and CO2 diffuse based on those pressure differences

co2 in alveoli- RBC (h) to avieoli (l), o2 in aveoli- alvioli (h) to RBC (l), o2 at tissues- RBC (H) to tissue (l), co2 at tissues- tissues (h) to RBC (l)







The Heart & Blood Vessels I – Ch 5

Key Concepts

Know the order in which blood travels through vessels:

arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins



Track the circulation route of blood, focus on blood circulating within the heart:

right ventricle →pulminary semilunar valve→right pulmonary arteries→pulmenary arteries→pulminary capilaries→pulmenary venules→right and left pulmonary veins→ left atriium→ left atrioventricular valve→left ventricle→aortic semilunar valve→aorta→systemic arterioles→ systemic capillareis→systemic venules→systemic veins→right atrium→right atrioventricular valve→right ventricle


The Heart & Blood Vessels II – Ch 5

Key Concepts

Outline the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure

Systolic is reached during ejection of blood from the heart

Diastolic occurs while left ventricle is relaxing


Describe the three mechanisms that aid in moving blood through veins: Blood pressure, Blood velocity, cross-sectional area of vessels



Red Blood Cells – Ch 6

Key Concepts

How many oxygen molecules can hemoglobin carry?

4


Contrast oxygen and carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin

oxygen is weak-needs to break easily so oxygen can leave blood and go to tissues

CO2 formes a strong bond



White Blood Cells – Ch 6

Key Concepts

Outline the function of each of the five types of white blood cells discussed in class

Neutrophils: most abundant WBC in the body, first responders to bacterial infection

Eosinphils: protects the body from large parasites like worms

Basophils: release histamine associated with allergic reactions

Lymphocytes: responsible for specific immunity (B and T cells)

Monocytes: mature into macrophages (big eaters)


Describe in detail the ABO blood groups and how they affect blood compatibility, focus on O and AB blood types



Immune System I – Ch 7

Key Concepts

Compare and contrast innate immunity and adaptive immunity

Innate: non specific/ no memory

Adaptive: recognition

Describe the roles of helper T-cells, cytotoxic T cells and memory T cells

Helper T-Cells: sectretes cytokines

Cytotoxic T-Cells: kill infected cells

Memory T-Cells: stores memory


Immune System II – Ch 7

Key Concepts

Contrast active and passive immunity

Active: produce in body

Passive: given (breast milk)


Describe the use of vaccines and booster shots in developing the immune system

vaccines (some) wear off, boosters help keep them going



Infectious Disease – Ch 8

Key Concepts

Describe the common structures in bacteria and the function of each, including: Cell wall, capsule, flagella, fimbriae, pilus, and plasmid

Cell Wall: protects the bacteria

Capsule: gelatonous layer outside cell wall of some bacteria

Flagella: rotates 360 degrees which allows movement

Fimbre: stif fibres that allow bacteria to stick to surfaces like host cells

Pilus: elongated, hollow appendage used to transfer DNA from one cell to another

Plasmid: Circular DNA found in many bacteria

Define the different classifications of infectious disease:

Epidemic: when a disease has more cases than expected for a period of time.

Outbreak: epidemic is confined to a local region.

Pandemic: global epidemic






MODULE 5 QUESTIONS – 30% OF THE EXAM  - 30 QUESTIONS


(1) Reproductive System – Ch 17

Key Concepts

  • Outline the function of the major components of the male reproductive tract (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, seminal vesicles)

Testes: produces sperm as well as male sex hormones

Epididymis: ducts where sperm matures

Vas Deferens: where sperm is stored. smooth muscles here cause ejaulation

Urethra:sperm from the ejaculatory duct enters here- duct for sperm and urine

Seminal Vesicles: Donut shaped gland that surrounds the upper portion of urethra just below bladder


  • Describe the location and function of Leydig cells and Sertoli cells

Leydig: in between tubules, secretes testosterone

Sertoli: generates 4 serm cells per cell


  • Describe the effect of FSH and LH on the testes

FSH: follicle stimulating hormone, stimulates sertoli cells to produce sperm and nurture sperm

LH: stimulates leydig cells to produce testosterone


  • Outline the function of the major components of the female reproductive tract (ovaries, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina)

Ovaries: production of egs/ follicles

Oviduct: duct to the uterus, ideal fertilization occurs here

Uterus: where embryo plants, thickens during period

Cervix: mucous membranes allow for expansion, acidic

Vagina: opeing for birth and intercourse


  • Describe the effect of FSH and LH on the ovaries

FSH: stimulates follicle growth

LH: triggers ovulation


  • Know the following about the ovarian cycle (Answers to these are included to help you, you will be given the ovarian cycle diagram on the exam as a reference) :

    • What does FSH do during the follicular phase? -Activates follicle to develop, which secretes estrogen

    • What triggers ovulation? -LH surge at mid-cycle

    • What is the corpus luteum and what is its role? -Remnant of ruptured follicle that becomes a gland. It secretes progesterone and some estrogen. Progesterone builds up the endometrium, and inhibits FSH from developing a new follicle and LH from triggering ovulation

    • If the egg is not fertilized what happens? -Steep drop in estrogen and progesterone causes endometrium cells to die and slough off = menstruation. Also this drop in hormones allows FSH to mature a new follicle to start the cycle again and LH to ovulate that follicle

    • Detail what happens when the egg is fertilized -Placenta forms and produces HCG hormone. This hormone maintains the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium and also inhibits FSH from making a new follicle and LH from ovulating that follicle

    • What hormone is detected by a pregnancy test? -HCG hormone


Key Terminology

  • Leydig Cells- located in testes, produces testosterone.

  • Sertoli Cells- located in testes, where sperm grows and matures

  • Corpus Luteum- produces estrogen and progesterone in the ovary

  • Endometrium- what sheds during a period



(2) Human Development – Ch 18

Key Concepts

  • Know the process of how a sperm enters the egg:

sperm penetrates zona pellucida, thenthe corona radiata, after sperm head binds tightly to zona pellucilia, acrosome releases digestive enzyme to forge pathway for sperm, plasma membrane fuses and the nuclei of the sperm enters the egg, eggs plasma becomes depolarized to prevent polyspermy


  • Outline the four main stages of development and what happens at each stage

Cleavage: mitotic cell division

Growth: cell division, cells increase in size

Morphogenisis: cells migrate emryeo assumes shape

Differentiation: cells take on specific structures and functions


  • What is a blastocyst and what do the inner cell mass and outer cells of the blastocyst become?

Hollow ball of cells- embryo


  • Contrast the different functions of the four extraembryonic membranes

Chorion- develops into the fetal half of placenta

Placenta- the organ that provides the embryo/ fetus with nourishment and oxygen

Yolk sack- first embryonic membrane to appear, first site of blood cell formation

Amnion- enlarges embryo and then the fetus enlargens, contains fluid to cushionand protect embryo/fetus


  • What do each of the three primary germ layers develop into?

Endoderm: Innermost layer- forms digestive tract

Mesoderm: middle layer- forms muscles, bones, circulatory

Ectoderm: outermost layer- forms skin and nervous system


  • What is the function of the placenta?

Takes over hormone production during pregnancy


  • What is the function of the umbilical cord?

Transfer nutrients- carries deoxyginated bloood from fetal heart to placenta


  • Contrast the role of umbilical veins and arteries (do they carry deoxygenated/oxygenated blood, where do they carry blood to/from) (refer to above question)


  • Describe the role of the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus in fetal circulation

inflation of lungs (baby’s first cry), forces fla to close over valve and seals


Key Terminology

  • Zygote- fertilized egg

  • Zona pellucida- surrounds egg plasma membrane

  • Acrosome- head of the sperm cell

  • Cleavage division- cell division but no growth


(3) Evolution I – Ch 23

Key Concepts

  • Differentiate between chemical and biological evolution

chemical: involvews formation of small organic molecules (involves biological evolution) over time

Biological: species change over time


  • Outline the four steps to living cells

  1. small organic molecules

  2. macromolecules

  3. protocells

  4. living cells


  • Contrast Lamarck's hypothesis for evolution to Darwin’s

Lamarcks book published in 1801, acquired traits, over time traits develop after birth and can be passed on

Darwin published book in 1859, some individuals survive and reproduce, mutations, those with traits allowing for better survival in the enviornment are more likely o survive = more fit


  • Know what artificial selection is 

humans select who will breed


  • Outline the three requirements for natural selection to occur

  1. individuals are different from one another

  2. competition

  3. heritability


  • Describe the four major evidences for evolution (fossil record, biogeography, anatomical, biochemical) and be familiar with the examples given for each

Fossil record: hard structures buried in sediment become mineralized and inclosed around sedimentary rock- incomplete ~1% ever found

Biogeography: studies the distrobutions of species in different places

Anatomical evidence: comparison of anatomy confirms that species share a common ancestor


  • Define homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures and give examples of each

Analogous: Same function but not same anatomy

Vestigial: anatomical features present but no longer serve the designated function




Key Terminology

  • Natural Selection- survival of the fittest

  • Artificial Selection- humans decide what we breed

  • Transition fossils- have characteristic of 2 different groups


(4) Evolution II – Ch 23

Key Concepts

  • Outline the major adaptations to arboreal life by primates

mobile limbs with 5 digits on each and and foot, with fingers instead of claws, shortened snouts and front facing eyes (allowing for depth perception), large and more complex brains, reduced reproductive rate


  • Outline changes in human skeletal structure compared to chimpanzee

Human: Spine exits from the skull center, human spine is s-shaped, pelvis is bowl shaped, femers angle inward towards knees, knee can support more weight, foot has an arch, toe is not opposable

Chimpanzee: Spine exits from rear of skull, spine has a slight curve, pelvis is long and narrow, femers angle out a little, foot is flat, opposble toe


  • In which major group of primates do humans belong - Prosimians or Anthropoids?

Anthropoids


  • What are branches and nodes in an evolutionary tree?

each node with descendants represents the inferred most recent common ancestor of those descendants

Branches show the path of transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.


  • Understand the idea of the molecular clock (the longer a species has branched off from the ancestor, the more unique mutations it accumulates, the more different it becomes from the ancestor)

the average rate at which a species' genome accumulates mutations, used to measure their evolutionary divergence and in other calculations


  • For each of the early human examples (Homo Floresiensis, Homo Neanderthalensis, Homo Denisovans, Homo Sapiens) outline the main distinguishing features and know details about each

Homo Floresiensis: Approx ~80,000 years old, nicknamed ‘hobits’, small, childsized

Homo Neanderthals: first found in germany; Neander Valley, massive brow bridges, nose jaws and teeth protruded far forward, lower jaw lacked chin

Homo Denisovans: Found in Rusia; related to  neanderthals, hybrid between homo species

Homo Sapiens: modern humans