Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy Notes
# Chapter 1 Notes
US Foundations of American Democracy
Citizen activism: Individuals from all walks of life believe their government listens to them.
The belief that “my voice matters” fuels participation; lack of this belief leads to disengagement.
Margaret Mead:
“Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has.”
📱 Modern Political Landscape & Technology
Technology’s impact:
Social media (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram) reshapes how politicians communicate and how voters receive information.
Micro‑targeting, email, and text messaging are now core campaign tools.
Computerized elections and digital public services are standard at state and municipal levels.
Challenges:
Foreign interference (e.g., Russia’s 2016 election influence).
Information overload & potential for increased cynicism.
Privacy concerns in the digital age.
🏛 Core Functions of Government
👑 Types of Government Systems
Constitutionalism: Government limited by a written constitution; protects individual rights. The U.S. is a constitutional democracy.
📜 Origins of American Democracy
Ancient Greece – Introduced demokratia (people power) and majority rule in city‑states, though women & slaves were excluded.
Judeo‑Christian tradition & English common law – Influenced ideas of liberty and rule of law.
Reformation (1517) – Martin Luther’s 95 Theses challenged authority, fostering the notion that individuals could govern themselves.
Mayflower Compact (1620) – Early social contract emphasizing consent of the governed.
Enlightenment (late 1600s‑1700s) –
Newton: Natural law & scientific reasoning.
Hobbes: Social contract needed a sovereign to avoid “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” life.
Locke: Inalienable life, liberty, and property; government exists to protect these rights, and citizens may rebel if it fails.
Rousseau: Popular sovereignty – government derives authority from the people.
🌟 Core American Political Values
Liberty – Freedom from undue government interference and freedom to pursue happiness.
Equality – Evolved from Greek merit‑based ideas and Judeo‑Christian belief that all are equal before God; now includes political, legal, and economic dimensions.
Capitalism – Private ownership of production; market determines prices, wages, and distribution (with government regulation such as minimum wage, safety standards, tariffs).
Consent of the Governed – People grant authority to government; majority rule (≥ 50 % + 1) while protecting minority rights.
Individualism – Rights are exercised by individuals; the First Amendment protects assembly and association.
Definition – Civic Engagement (Michael Delli Carpini):
“Individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern.”
🗳 Ideological Spectrum & Political Culture
Traditional axes:
Economic – Fiscal liberalism (government ensures economic equality) ↔ Social conservatism (hands‑off economy).
Social – Social liberty (personal freedoms) ↔ Social conservatism (traditional values).
Key Ideologies:
Liberalism – Larger government role in economic equality; strong personal liberties.
Conservatism – Smaller economic role; may support government action to protect traditional social values.
Socialism – Government or workers own means of production; seeks economic equality.
Libertarianism – Minimal government interference; strong property rights, laissez‑faire capitalism.
Multidimensional scales reveal that many citizens blend positions (e.g., favor economic regulation but also robust free‑speech protections).
👥 Demographic Shifts & Political Implications
Electoral participation: Youth voter turnout rose to ~43 % in 2016 (up from 2012). Millennials historically favor Democrats; early signs show Generation Z may lean more Republican.Civic pathways: Beyond voting, youth engage via Internet activism, buycotting, e‑petitions, and volunteerism.
📚 Civic & Political Engagement Opportunities
Traditional actions:
Voting in local, state, and federal elections.
Running for office or supporting candidates.
Volunteer for campaigns, NGOs, or community projects.
Digital actions:
Follow elected officials on Twitter.
Join issue‑focused Facebook groups.
Organize fund‑raisers, sign e‑petitions, or coordinate online protests.
Economic leverage:
Boycott firms with objectionable policies.
Buycott products aligned with personal values.
Principle – Efficacy in Action:
“When individuals act, they experience efficacy—the belief that their efforts can produce desired outcomes. Repetition strengthens advocacy skills.”
# Chapter 2 Notes
🌟 Independence & Early Governance
1776 – Colonists declared independence to secure life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness and to establish a new government.
1777 – The First Continental Congress sent the Articles of Confederation to the 13 states for ratification.
The Articles created a confederal system: a loose alliance of sovereign states with a weak national government.
🗂 Articles of Confederation
Structure: Unicameral Congress; each state sent 2‑7 delegates but had one vote.
Powers: Could conduct foreign affairs, coin money, and declare war, but could not tax or compel states to obey national policies.
Amendment Rule: Required unanimous consent of all 13 states.
Weaknesses:
No power to raise revenue → chronic funding problems.
No national judiciary → disputes between states unresolved.
Lack of uniform economic policy → interstate commerce hampered.
🏛 Constitutional Convention & Drafting
1787 – Delegates met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles; quickly shifted to drafting a new constitution.
Key outcomes:
Federal system with dual sovereignty (national & state).
Separation of powers among three branches.
Checks and balances to prevent tyranny.
Ratified in 1789; remains the world’s oldest written national constitution.
📜 Core Principles of the U.S. Constitution
Federalism – power divided between national and state governments.
Popular sovereignty – authority derives from the people.
Protection of natural rights – life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
Vague language – allows reinterpretation by each generation.
“The Constitution presents the fundamental principles of a government and establishes the basic structures and procedures by which the government operates to fulfill those principles.”
📖 Types of Constitutions
🏗 Structure of a Constitution
Mission statement – long‑term goals (e.g., the Preamble).
Foundational structures – description of core government bodies.
Operating procedures – how officials are selected, laws made, amendments processed.
📑 The Preamble (1791)
“We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
Ambiguity: “promote the general welfare” has sparked centuries of debate.
🤔 Ambiguity & Interpretation
Supreme Court holds final interpretive authority, but justices often disagree.
Changing social, economic, and technological contexts continuously reshape meanings.
🏘 Colonial Society & Governance
Diverse population: land‑grant aristocrats, indentured servants, religious refugees, enslaved Africans, and Native Americans.
Two‑tier system: Local colonial assemblies handled day‑to‑day matters; the British Parliament (no colonial representation) imposed overarching laws.
🇬🇧 British Policies & Colonial Response
Women’s role: Produced homespun goods for boycotts, a crucial non‑violent resistance tool.
⚔ Path to Revolution
Lexington & Concord (April 19 1775) – first armed clashes.
Second Continental Congress (May 10 1775) → functioned as an independent government; appointed George Washington as commander.
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (Jan 1776) galvanized public support for independence.
🗽 Declaration of Independence (July 4 1776)
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson; endorsed three radical principles:
Equality & natural (unalienable) rights – life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.
Government by consent of the governed.
Right of the people to overthrow a government that fails to protect rights.
Listed grievances against King George III to justify the break.
🏛 State Constitutions & Their Innovations
First written constitutions in the world (e.g., Virginia, 1776).
Features:
Single written document specifying principles, structures, procedures.
Bill of Rights protecting civil liberties.
Popular sovereignty – governments created by the people.
Typical structure: bicameral legislature, elected executive, judicial branch; legislative supremacy within the state.
🔧 Weaknesses of the Articles & Calls for Reform
Shays’s Rebellion (1786‑87) exposed inability of the national government to maintain order or raise funds.
Annapolis Convention (1786) highlighted trade and commerce problems; called for a full convention to amend the Articles.
📍 Annapolis & Prelude to Constitutional Convention
Delegates noted “embarrassments… foreign and domestic” → recommended a constitutional convention with all 13 states.
🤝 Constitutional Convention Debates & Compromises
Virginia Plan (Madison) – proportional representation, bicameral legislature.
New Jersey Plan (Paterson) – equal representation, unicameral.
Connecticut (Great) Compromise – House of Representatives (population‑based) + Senate (two per state).
Representation Comparison
Three‑Fifths Compromise – counted each enslaved person as 3/5 of a free person for representation & taxation purposes.
⚖ Federal System & Dual Sovereignty
National government handles: interstate/foreign commerce, coinage, war, treaties.
States retain sovereignty over most domestic matters (not enumerated in the Constitution).
“The Constitution and the treaties and laws made in compliance with it are the supreme law of the land.” – Supremacy Clause (Art. VI)
🏆 Supremacy Clause
Establishes Constitution as supreme law; state laws contrary to it are invalid.
🔄 Separation of Powers & Integrated Checks and Balances
Legislative (makes laws) ↔ Executive (enforces, can veto) ↔ Judicial (interprets, judicial review).
🏛 Representation Conflicts & Compromises
Electoral College – indirect presidential election; originally each elector cast two votes (changed by the 12th Amendment, 1804).
Senate selection – originally by state legislatures; shifted to direct election by the 17th Amendment (1913).
Voting rights – initially limited to property‑owning white men; many groups excluded.
🏴☠ Slavery & the Constitution
Importation clause (Art. I, §9) prohibited banning the slave trade until 1808.
Fugitive Slave Clause (Art. IV) required return of escaped enslaved persons.
Three‑Fifths Compromise gave slave‑holding states greater representation.
🛡 Bill of Rights Debate
George Mason (1787) demanded a bill of rights; Roger Sherman argued state constitutions already provided protections.
The Bill of Rights (1791) – first 10 amendments – enumerated specific liberties and limited federal power.
📚 Ratification Process & Federalist vs. Anti‑Federalist
Ratification required approval by 9 of 13 state conventions (Art. VII).
Federalists: argued the Constitution’s structure protected liberty; opposed a Bill of Rights, fearing it might limit unenumerated rights.
Anti‑Federalists: feared strong central government, lack of explicit rights, and potential tyranny.
“Half a loaf is better than no bread.” – Thomas Jefferson on the necessity of a Bill of Rights.
📘 Articles I–VII Summaries
🔄 Amendment Process & Living Constitution
Formal amendment: two‑step – proposal (2/3 of each chamber or convention) + ratification (3/4 of states).
Only 27 amendments ratified out of 33 proposals that cleared Congress.
Judicial interpretation (e.g., Marbury v. Madison, 1803) provides informal amendment via judicial review.
“A constitution is … regarded by judges as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning.” – Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 78
⚖ Judicial Review & Interpretation
Courts examine: text, original understanding, historical context, precedent, constitutional values, and contemporary needs.
Decisions tend to follow public opinion; courts lack enforcement power, relying on other branches to uphold rulings.
🌱 Modern Perspectives & Ongoing Evolution
The Constitution remains dynamic: amendments, Supreme Court rulings, and public discourse continuously reshape its application.
Core mission: “a more perfect union”—an evolving project guided by the principles of popular sovereignty, federalism, and protected natural rights.
# Chapter 3 Notes
📜 Overview of the U.S. Federal System
Dual sovereignty – the Constitution creates two constitutionally recognized levels of government (national and state), each with ultimate authority over different policy matters and geographic areas.
National jurisdiction = entire United States.
State jurisdiction = within each state’s borders.
The system is distinct from unitary (central authority) and confederal (loose alliance of sovereign states) arrangements.
⚖ Constitutional Distribution of Authority
📚 Concurrent Powers (both national & state)
Make policy, raise/spend money, enforce laws, and maintain courts.
States may delegate some of these powers to local governments.
🇺🇸 National Sovereignty
Enumerated powers (Article I): interstate/foreign commerce, coin money, national defense, general welfare, etc.
Implied powers – derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause (Art. I, §8): “make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper…”
Executive powers (Art. II): treaty making (with Senate consent), appointing ambassadors.
Judicial powers (Art. III): jurisdiction over constitutional issues, federal statutes, treaties, and disputes between states or citizens of different states.
📜 Supremacy Clause (Art. VI)
“This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States… shall be the supreme Law of the Land.”
National laws (within constitutional authority) trump conflicting state/local laws.
🤝 National Treaties with Indian Nations
Treated as supreme law; apply on reservations despite state borders.
Over 550 federally recognized tribes; ~300 reservations in 34 states.
State laws on taxes, crime, environment are unenforceable on reservations.
🏛 State Sovereignty
📖 Reserved Powers (10th Amendment)
“Powers not delegated to the United States… are reserved to the States… or to the people.”
Police powers: health, safety, morals, welfare (birth, marriage, intrastate commerce, crime, etc.).
📊 Powers Delegated to the States
Electoral role – choose electors for President, redraw House districts after each census.
Amendment ratification – 3/4 of states must approve constitutional changes.
🌐 Horizontal Federalism (Article IV)
Interstate compacts – require congressional approval.
Extradition – governors may request return of fugitives; courts may reject.
Full Faith & Credit – states must honor each other’s public acts, records, and judicial decisions.
Example: 2016 Supreme Court ruling that states must honor same‑sex parent adoptions across state lines.
🏛 Supreme Court Interpretation of the Constitution
📚 Judicial Federalism
States increasingly rely on their own constitutions to expand rights beyond the federal baseline (e.g., environmental rights in Pennsylvania, free speech on private property in California).
Fourteenth Amendment ensures due process & equal protection, but states may grant additional privileges.
🏛 Models of Federalism
Devolution – contemporary push (Reagan, Bush) to return policy‑making, financing, and implementation to states.
💰 Tools of Intergovernmental Relations
📈 Grants‑in‑Aid
📜 Mandates
Funded – federal government pays full cost.
Unfunded – states must bear part or all costs (e.g., drinking‑age condition on highway funds).
🚫 Preemption
Federal law supersedes conflicting state/local law when it lies within a national power (common in environmental and aviation regulation).
❌ Nullification
True nullification – state declares federal law invalid (rare).
Non‑acquiescence – state refuses to enforce federal law.
Inconsistent legislation – state law conflicts with federal statute.
🏥 Case Study: Affordable Care Act (ACA)
Supreme Court upheld ACA’s constitutionality but struck down the mandatory Medicaid expansion provision as coercive.
Result: Individual mandate (requiring health insurance) remains; states may choose whether to expand Medicaid.
Political pattern – Democratic states expanded first; Republican states resisted, later accepted waivers.
📊 Advantages & Disadvantages of Modern Federalism
🏛 Intergovernmental Relations (IGR) Today
Cooperative: joint funding, shared implementation (e.g., Medicaid).
Conflictive: lawsuits over immigration, environmental standards, voting rights.
Political polarization fuels partisan federalism, with states acting as policy laboratories when Congress is gridlocked.