EXAM 2
Lecture Exam 2 Notes
Chapter 6—The Skeletal System
Objectives:
Name the organs of the skeletal system.
The skeletal system is composed of:
Bones
Functions:
Support and shape the body
Attachment site for muscles
Store essential minerals
Provide protection to internal structures
Role in energy metabolism
Hemopoiesis (formation of blood cells)
Energy storage
Cartilages
Aids in support and movement
Provides cushioning
Joints
Where bones meet
Supported by cartilage
Facilitates movement
Locate the major cartilaginous structures of the adult human body.
Elastic Cartilage:
External ear
Epiglottis (flap that guards the entrance to the larynx and lungs)
Fibrocartilage:
Intervertebral discs (discs between the vertebrae)
Pubic symphysis
Articular discs in movable joints (e.g., meniscus)
Hyaline Cartilage:
Nose
Articular cartilages (cover the ends of most bones in movable joints)
Costal cartilages (connect the ribs to the sternum)
Larynx
Cartilages in air tubes of the respiratory system
Describe the perichondrium.
Perichondrium:
Defined as a layer of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding hyaline and elastic cartilage (not fibrocartilage).
Functions:
Acts as a girdle, resisting outward expansion during pressure, adding strength to cartilage.
Plays a role in cartilage growth and repair.
Types of growth:
Appositional growth (growth from the outside)
Interstitial growth (growth from within, occurring during adolescence)
Not present in fibrocartilage due to its abundant collagen which grants it strength and diverse functioning.
Hyaline Cartilage Chondrocytes:
In appositional growth, 'chondroblasts' situated in perichondrium produce new cartilage tissue.
Classify any bone below the skull as either short (including sesamoid), flat, irregular, or long.
Long Bones:
Characterized by a shaft and two distinct ends. (Note: classification is not based on length.)
Examples:
Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges (finger bones), metatarsals, phalanges (toe bones), clavicles
Short Bones:
Roughly cube-shaped bones.
Examples:
Carpal bones (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate)
Tarsal bones (talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid, medial cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, lateral cuneiform)
Sesamoid Bones:
A subclass of short bones that form within tendons.
Examples:
Patella, pisiform, hallux sesamoids, fabella (some people have this behind the knee)
Flat Bones:
Thin, flattened, usually curved bones.
Examples:
Cranial bones of the skull, ribs, sternum, scapula
Irregular Bones:
Bones with irregular shapes.
Examples:
Vertebrae, hip bones
Describe the gross and microscopic structure of compact and spongy bone tissue and locations of each in bones.
Compact Bone Tissue:
Dense outer layer appearing smooth to the naked eye.
Composed of:
Osteon (Haversian system):
Long cylindrical structures containing osteocytes and an abundant extracellular matrix between cells, resembling weight-bearing pillars.
Lamella: Layer of bone matrix consisting of collagen fibers and crystallized minerals.
Central Canal:
Runs through the center of osteons, containing blood vessels and nerve fibers, lined by the endosteum.
Perforating Canals:
Lie at right angles to central canals, connecting the blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of central canals and the marrow cavity.
Canaliculi:
Connect neighboring lacunae to each other and nearest capillaries, allowing osteocytes to touch and form gap junctions.
Interstitial Lamellae:
Reside between osteons, representing remnants of old osteons.
Circumferential Lamellae:
Located on external and internal surfaces of compact bone, extending around the diaphysis' circumference to resist twisting.
Spongy Bone Tissue:
Internal, trabecular bone that is filled with red or yellow bone marrow (in long bones).
Trabeculae:
House both osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
Notably, spongy bone lacks a central canal but contains endosteum where blood vessels are located.
Describe the detailed anatomy of a typical long bone and the generalized anatomy of other bone classes.
Long Bones:
Diaphysis: The shaft, primarily composed of compact bone tissue.
Epiphyses: The ends, mostly made of spongy bone tissue with some compact bone; capped with articular cartilage.
Articular Cartilage: Layer of hyaline cartilage covering the joint surface of each epiphysis.
Metaphysis: Junctional area between the proximal epiphysis and diaphysis containing the epiphyseal line or plate.
Epiphyseal Line: Remnant of the epiphyseal plate (growth plate); a disc of hyaline cartilage essential for lengthening the bone during adolescence.
Blood Vessels: Well-vascularized; includes nutrient artery and vein in the diaphysis plus several epiphyseal arteries and veins.
Medullary Cavity: The center of the diaphysis in long bones contains yellow bone marrow, while the interiors of all bones are mainly spongy bone.
Periosteum: Dense irregular connective tissue covering the outer bone surface except at the epiphyses; secured to bone via perforating collagen fiber bundles (Sharpey’s fibers).
Endosteum: Lines the internal bone surface, covering trabeculae of spongy bone and central canals of osteons.
Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones:
These bone types have a similar structure to long bones: they possess periosteum-covered compact bone externally and endosteum-covered spongy bone internally.
However, they do not contain diaphysis, epiphyses, or marrow cavities.
Their internal spongy bone is known as diploë.
Describe and distinguish between the structures, functions, and locations of periosteum and endosteum.
Periosteum:
A thick membrane covering the external surface of the bone, absent where there's articular cartilage at the epiphysis' ends.
Composed of two layers:
Superficial layer of dense irregular connective tissue
Deep osteogenic layer that forms bones containing osteoblasts (bone-building) and osteoclasts (bone-resorbing).
Sharpey’s fibers: Attach the periosteum to bone tissue; highly vascular and innervated, providing insertion points for tendons and ligaments.
Endosteum:
A thin osteogenic membrane covering/lining the internal bone surface (contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts).
Covers the central canal of osteons, all trabeculae in spongy bone, epiphyses of long bones, and inside short, irregular, and flat bones.
Highly vascularized.
Explain how bone markings come about and give examples of each kind.
Bone markings arise due to mechanical forces applied to specific locations on the bone, which reflect stress patterns.
Categories of markings:
Projections for muscle and ligament attachment
Surfaces forming joints
Depressions and openings
Example: Bulges or bumps may indicate pull from muscles.
Distinguish between the epiphyseal plate and line.
Epiphyseal Plate:
Also known as the growth plate, it is a disc of hyaline cartilage that grows during childhood, allowing for bone lengthening.
The growth process entails cartilage growth on the epiphysis side replaced by bone on the diaphysis side; both are found at the metaphysis.
Epiphyseal Line:
This is the remnant of the epiphyseal plate once growth concludes in adulthood.
Bone replaces all the cartilage, leaving only the epiphyseal line.
Distinguish between osteoblasts and osteoclasts and list possible symptoms of osteoblast/osteoclast dysregulation.
Osteoblasts:
Produce bone and secrete organic compounds of the bone matrix, including ground substance and collagen fibers.
Mature to become osteocytes when surrounded by matrix, maintaining bone health.
Osteoclasts:
Reabsorb and break down bone. Derived from white blood cells.
Secrete HCl and lysosomal enzymes that dissolve the bone matrix's mineral and organic components.
Destruction of old or damaged bone is normal, adapting to changing stress.
Dysregulation:
Paget’s disease: Characterized by excessive bone deposition and resorption, starting with hyperactive osteoclasts leading to compensatory osteoblast activity increase.
Osteoporosis: Characterized by excessive osteoclast activity outpacing bone formation, leading to weak, fragile bones.
Chapter 9—Joints of the Body (Articulations)
Objectives:
Differentiate the structural and functional classes of joints.
Structural Classes: Based on anatomical features:
Presence/absence of a synovial cavity (the space between two structures)
Type of connective tissue binding bones (ligaments vs. cartilage)
Categories:
Fibrous Joints:
Bones united by dense collagen fibers; no synovial cavity, held by ligaments.
Cartilaginous Joints:
Bones united by cartilage; no synovial cavity.
Synovial Joints:
Bones united by ligaments; majority of joints feature cavity filled with synovial fluid, held by ligaments.
Functional Classes: Based on the type and degree of movement:
Synarthroses: Immovable joints
Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable joints
Diarthroses: Freely movable joints
All synovial joints are diarthrotic, predominantly found in limbs.
Describe the general structure of fibrous and cartilaginous joints. Provide examples and give functional classes for each.
Fibrous Joints:
Adjoining bones united by collagenic fibers.
Examples:
Suture (short fibers)—immobile
Syndesmosis (longer fibers)—slightly mobile
Gomphosis (periodontal ligament)—immobile
Cartilaginous Joints:
Adjoining bones united by cartilage.
Examples:
Synchondrosis (hyaline)—immobile
Symphysis—slightly movable
Fibrous joints involve dense regular connective tissue and lack a joint cavity; generally synarthrotic.
Cartilaginous joints lack a joint cavity and are not highly movable.
Describe the structural and functional characteristics shared by all synovial joints.
Synovial Joints:
Adjoining bones are separated by a joint cavity, covered with articular cartilage, and enclosed within an articular capsule, which is lined with a synovial membrane.
Types and Mobility:
Plane
Hinge
Pivot
Condylar
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
All are freely movable (diarthrosis); allowed movements depend on the joint design.
Describe the structure and function of the synovial capsule, synovium, and articular cartilage.
Articular Cartilage:
Type of hyaline cartilage covering ends of opposing bones to absorb compression.
Joint Cavity:
Space holding synovial fluid exclusive to synovial joints.
Articular Capsule:
Encloses joint cavity. Composed of an outer fibrous layer and inner synovial membrane:
The fibrous layer consists of dense irregular connective tissue and is continuous with the periosteum of adjoining bones; it strengthens the joint.
Synovial Membrane:
Composed of loose connective tissue creating synovial fluid (covers non-cartilage areas).
Compare and contrast the three types of reinforcing ligaments at synovial joints and give examples of each.
Ligaments:
Some synovial joints have reinforcements made of dense regular connective tissue:
Capsular Ligaments: Thickened bands within the joint capsule itself.
Extracapsular Ligament: Located outside the joint capsule.
Intracapsular Ligament: Situated inside the joint capsule.
e.g., capsule of the hip joint.
Explain what is meant by functional redundancy with regard to nerves and blood vessels associated with joints.
Functional Redundancy:
Refers to multiple nerves/vessels reaching individual joints from different directions.
Allows for nourishment continuity, even if normal movements compress a blood vessel, ensuring others stay open.
When injuries destroy some vessels/nerves, remaining ones maintain joint integrity.
Classify synovial joints into six categories based on their articulation shapes and permitted movement types.
Structural Classes of Synovial Joints:
Planar
Hinge
Pivot
Condyloid / Condylar
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
Functional Classes:
Nonaxial: Bones do not move around a specific axis.
Uniaxial: Movement occurs around a single axis.
Biaxial: Movement permitted around two axes.
Multiaxial: Movement allowed around all axes (frontal, sagittal, transverse).
Name and describe the movements permitted at each category of synovial joint and identify which plane each movement occurs in.
Types of Movement:
Gliding: Flattened surfaces of two bones slipping across each other, nonaxial (at plane joints).
Angular Movements:
Flexion: Decreases the angle
Extension: Increases the angle
Hyperextension: Bends a joint past the normal range
Abduction: Moves away from the midline
Adduction: Moves towards the midline
Circumduction: Moves a limb circularly in a cone shape.
Occurs at hinge (only flex. & ext.), condylar, saddle, ball-and-socket joints.
Rotation:
Turning movement of a bone around the longitudinal axis (along the transverse plane) occurs at pivot and ball-and-socket joints, either right/left regarding trunk or medial/lateral for lower limbs.
Describe special movements that occur only at specific joints in the body (e.g., opposition) and give examples.
Examples:
Occur only in specific joints, such as:
Opposition: Unique to mandible, clavicle, or scapula.
Certain joint actions (bent axis) involve joints like the subtalar joint and talocrural joint (do not utilize flexion/extension at the ankle).
Be able to name joints in the body using anatomical terminology (e.g., tarsometatarsal joint or talocalcaneal joint).
Lecture Example: Knee Joint—Tibiofemoral Joint
Defined as the largest, most complex joint, classified as a modified hinge joint (bicondylar hinge). - Allows mainly flexion/extension with some medial/lateral rotation, restricting motion to the sagittal plane. - It is extremely strong and stable, sharing a joint cavity with the femoropatellar joint (a gliding joint). - The PCL and ACL prevent translation/gliding, thus restricting movement along the frontal plane. - Meniscus functions as shock absorber and provides enhanced fit.
Chapter 10—The Muscular System
Objectives:
List and describe four functional properties of all muscle tissue.
Review of Muscle Terms:
Myocyte = muscle cell = muscle fiber
Myo- & mys- = muscle
Sarc- = flesh
Functional Properties of Muscles:
Contractility: The ability to shorten and generate force; muscles only pull.
Excitability: The ability to respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals, innervated by neurons.
Extensibility: The ability to stretch without damage.
Elasticity: The ability to return to original shape post distension (i.e., recoil).
Functions of Skeletal Muscle: Includes movement, posture and joint stabilization, opening/closing body passageways (sphincter muscles), and thermogenesis (e.g., shivering).
Describe the organization of skeletal muscle cells into whole muscles, including explanations of the connective tissue sheaths, general nerve innervation, and blood supply.
Sheets of connective tissue hold skeletal muscle cells tightly together in parallel alignment, enabling force generation.
Connective Tissue Sheaths:
Epimysium: Outermost layer of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding the entire skeletal muscle.
Perimysium: Connective tissue surrounding fascicles (groups of muscle cells).
Endomysium: Innermost loose connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers (cells).
Nerve and Blood Supply:
Muscles are highly innervated and vascularized; connective tissue subdivides muscle cells and connects neighboring cells.
Describe how tendons are formed from connective tissue sheaths and distinguish a muscle’s point of origin and insertion.
The three sheaths of connective tissue (epimysium, perimysium, endomysium) converge to form tendons.
Tendons:
Connective tissue structures joining skeletal muscles to bones (specifically bone’s periosteum).
Tendons are continuous with all three muscle sheaths extending beyond muscle fiber length.
Muscular Attachment:
Tendons attach to periosteum's outer layer, then Sharpey’s fibers connect periosteum to bone.
Larger muscles attached lead to more prominent bumps (e.g., trochanters, tuberosities, crests).
Limb Notes:
Proximal = origin and Distal = insertion.
Distinguish between a strain and a sprain.
Strains: Damage to muscle (including tendon).
Sprains: Damage to ligaments.
Both may occur in severe cases.
Distinguish between myocyte, myofibril, and myofilament.
From largest to smallest:
Myocyte: A muscle cell, same as muscle fiber; contains myofibrils.
Myofibril: Long organelles within muscle cells made up of sarcomeres; specialized for contraction; contains myofilaments.
Myofilament: Filaments in sarcomeres, including actin and myosin.
Describe the myofibril, including the general arrangement of sarcomeres, the A-band vs. I-band, and relative position of myofibrils to other intracellular structures.
Myofibrils: Composed of repeating segments called sarcomeres.
Sarcomere Components:
Z Discs: Boundaries between sarcomeres.
A Band: Dark bands indicating thick myosin filaments; width remains unchanged during contraction.
H Zone: Central zone within A band void of thin filaments (no overlap); centered by M Line.
I Band: Light bands containing only thin filaments; shortens during contraction.
Intracellular Structures:
Nuclei: Muscle cells exhibit multiple elongated nuclei along the periphery.
Mitochondria: Shape varies based on fiber type; adapt to myofibril shape.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): Endoplasmic reticulum with tubules enveloping myofibrils; includes terminal cisterns adjacent to t-tubules, storing Ca2+ ions for muscle contraction.
T-Tubules: Intracellular invaginations of the sarcolemma running between terminal cisterns, facilitating nerve impulse transmission to stimulate calcium release for contraction.
Triad: Complex consisting of a t-tubule and its two adjacent terminal cisterns, present at A-I junctions of each sarcomere, allowing for calcium signal distribution for contraction.
Identify important parts of a sarcomere, including Z-disc, M-line, H-zone, A-band, and I-band. Explain how these differ in a contracted vs. relaxed cell.
Z disk: Clearly marked in both states.
I band: Light bands shorten during contraction; the centralized H zone is obscured due to filament overlap.
A band: Remains unchanged regardless of contraction state (includes thick myosin filaments).
Classify proteins as either contractile, regulatory, or structural; give examples/functions/location for each.
Contractile Proteins: Responsible for force production:
Actin myofilaments: Thin, globular helix; gets pulled by myosin heads during contraction.
Myosin myofilaments: Thick, with two heads containing binding sites for actin and ATPase (enzyme for splitting ATP for energy).
Regulatory Proteins: Control myofilament interactions during contractions:
Troponin: Protein binding sites for actin, tropomyosin, and calcium; changes shape upon calcium binding, exposing actin sites for myosin.
Tropomyosin: Thin strand spiraling around actin, covering actin binding sites.
Structural Proteins: Situate myofilaments appropriately:
Titin: Large elastic protein within the sarcomere, securing myosin; vital for elasticity resistance.
Dystrophin: Anchors myofibrils to the sarcolemma via a transmembrane protein (part of the dystrophin complex).
Note: Muscular dystrophy relates to issues with dystrophin.
Name the structures forming the triad and explain how many triads are present per sarcomere. Explain the associated functional relevance.
Triad: Composed of a t-tubule and its adjacent two terminal cisterns; two triads per sarcomere facilitate balanced calcium release needed for contraction across myofibrils.
Define the term motor unit and explain muscle cell innervation by the nervous system.
Motor Unit: A motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates.
Each muscle cell relies on one neuron while every neuron innervates multiple muscle cells.
Smaller motor units (fewer fibers) are necessary for fine motor skills while larger ones (more fibers) facilitate gross motor skills; specialized alpha motor neurons govern somatic motor function.
List all neuromuscular junction components.
Neuromuscular Junction: Where nerve endings interact with muscle fibers.
Main Components:
Axon Terminal: End of axonal process storing neurotransmitters (acetylcholine or ACh).
Synaptic Cleft: Separates axon terminals from muscle fibers; site for ACh diffusion across the synapse before binding to sarcolemma receptor molecules.
Junctional Folds: Sarcolemma invaginations increasing surface area for ACh receptor accommodation.
Identify and compare the three skeletal muscle fiber types relating their anatomy to functional differences.
Muscle Fiber Types:
Slow Oxidative (Type I):
Myoglobin content & color: High - red
Contraction Velocity: Slow
Metabolic Process: Aerobic
Fatigue Resistance: High
Fiber Diameter: Small
Characteristics: Weaker; lacks significant burst capability.
Fast Ox-Glycolytic (Type IIa):
Myoglobin content & color: Moderate - pink
Contraction Velocity: Fast
Metabolic Process: Both aerobic and anaerobic
Fatigue Resistance: Intermediate
Fiber Diameter: Intermediate
Fast-Glycolytic (Type IIb/IIx):
Myoglobin content & color: Low - white
Contraction Velocity: Fast
Metabolic Process: Anaerobic
Fatigue Resistance: Low
Fiber Diameter: Large
Most muscles exhibit a blend among these fiber types, modifiable in response to imposed stresses.
Chapter 11—Muscles of the Body
Objectives:
Describe various muscle fascicle arrangements and provide examples of each type.
Fascicle Arrangements:
Convergent: Broad origin, fascicles converge toward a tendon of insertion (e.g., pectoralis major).
Circular: Arranged in concentric rings, functioning as sphincters (relaxed or contracted).
Parallel: Fascicles run in parallel to the long axis.
Fusiform: Parallel with tapered ends (e.g., biceps brachii).
Straplike: Parallel with uniform width (e.g., sartorius).
Pennate: Short fascicles attach obliquely to a tendon that extends the muscle's length, enabling force maximization (featherlike).
Multipennate: Multiple tendons and muscle cells (e.g., deltoid).
Bipennate: One central tendon splits on either side (e.g., rectus femoris).
Unipennate: One tendon extends from one side (e.g., extensor digitorum longus).
List components of a lever system and classify joint or whole-body movements either first, second, or third class lever systems.
Components of a Lever System:
Load: Resistance (weight/what is being moved)
Fulcrum: The pivot point of lever (joint)
Effort: Applied force (muscle exertion)
Types of Lever Systems:
First Class: Load-fulcrum-effort arrangement, e.g., nodding head.
Second Class: Fulcrum-load-effort arrangement, e.g., standing on toes.
Third Class: Load-effort-fulcrum arrangement (most common); muscle is applied force with joint acting as fulcrum, e.g., elbow flexion.
Describe the general arrangement of muscles into compartments and relate this to muscle functions as agonist or antagonist.
Muscle Compartmentalization: Based on location and function, typically innervated by a single nerve.
Muscle Interaction:
Agonist (Prime Mover): Contracts to produce an action, controlling movements.
Antagonist: Relaxes and yields to agonist induced movement; e.g., in elbow flexion, biceps brachii acts as agonist, while triceps brachii serves as antagonist.
Explain naming of muscles.
Naming Muscles: Based on various descriptors:
Location: anterior/posterior, superior/inferior
Shape: e.g., orbicularis, deltoid
Relative Size: e.g., maximus, minimus
Fascicle Arrangement: e.g., circular, pennate
Tendon Length: e.g., longus, brevis
Number of Origins: bi-, tri-
Action: e.g., extensor, flexor
Example: Extensor carpi radialis longus indicates muscle function (extensor) and location (carpals from radius side).
Relate muscle position across joints to its general action at those joints.
Muscle Actions:
For superior joints:
Anterior crossing = flex (biceps brachii at elbow)
Posterior crossing = extend (triceps brachii at elbow)
For inferior joints:
Anterior crossing = extend (rectus femoris at knee)
Posterior crossing = flex (biceps femoris at knee)
For all joints:
Superior/lateral crossing = abduct (away from midline).
Inferior/medial crossing = adduct (toward midline)
For rotation, horizontal or oblique fiber arrangements are necessary (occurs on the horizontal plane).
Definition of Crossing Joints:
Tendons cross joints; muscles crossing two joints are biarticular (or multiarticular for more).
Joints must permit action for muscles to induce movement (not permitted in knee abduction/adduction).
Predict a muscle's action if given specific origin and insertion or vice-versa.
Example Listing:
Rectus Abdominus
Origin: Pubic crest/symphysis
Insertion: Xiphoid process/costal cartilages
Action: Flexes the trunk (lumbar/thoracic spinal flexion)
Gluteus Maximus
Origin: Ilium/sacrum/coccyx
Insertion: Gluteal tuberosity of femur
Action: Extends, abducts, externally rotates the hip
Biceps Femoris
Origin: Long head (ischial tuberosity), Short head (linea aspera)
Insertion: Head of fibula/lateral condyle of tibia
Action: Extends hip/flexes knee
Semitendinosus
Origin: Ischial tuberosity
Insertion: Medial, upper shaft of tibia
Action: Extends hip/flexes knee
Other Examples include: Semimembranosus, Psoas Major, and others, highlighting their anatomical origins and insertions along with articulatory actions.
Name compartments for upper and lower limbs, assign muscles to respective compartments, describe major actions, and name major nerves innervating each compartment.
Upper Limb Compartments:
Brachial Anterior:
Muscles: Biceps brachii, Coracobrachialis, Brachialis
Innervated by: musculocutaneous nerve
Forearm Flexors:
Muscles include: Flexor digitorum superficialis & profundus, Pronator teres & quadratus, others.
Innervated by: median nerve and ulnar nerve
Brachial Posterior:
Muscles: Triceps brachii, Anconeus
Innervated by: radial nerve
Forearm Extensors:
Muscles include: Extensor carpi radialis longus & brevis, Extensor carpi ulnaris, others.
Innervated by: radial nerve
Lower Limb Compartments:
Thigh:
Anterior: Muscles include Vastus lateralis & medialis & intermedius, Rectus femoris, Sartorius.
Innervated by: femoral nerve
Posterior: Muscles include Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps femoris.
Innervated by: sciatic nerve
Medial: Muscles include Adductor magnus & longus & brevis, Gracilis (obturator nerve).
Leg:
Dorsiflexors: Muscles include Tibialis anterior, Extensor digitorum longus. Innervated by: deep peroneal nerve.
Superficial (plantar flexors): Muscles include Gastrocnemius and Soleus, innervated by tibial nerve.
Evertors: Muscles include Peroneus longus & brevis, innervated by superficial peroneal nerve.
Predict the nerve affected or impinged based on motor or sensory symptoms and vice-versa.
Upon muscle swelling (in fascial compartments) due to trauma or overuse, pressure elevation occurs:
Compressed Vessels: Leads to ischemia; causes swelling
Compressed Nerves: Results in pain/numbness
In cases of trauma, fasciotomy may be executed (to relieve pressure like unbuttoning tight pants)
Anterior compartment syndrome of the leg impacts the deep peroneal nerve, influencing dorsiflexion and digital flexion.
In posterior compartment syndrome, plantar flexion becomes difficult as the posterior muscles are affected.
Useful Etymology
a-, an- = without
ab- = away
ad- = toward
aero = air
ago = leader
-algia = pain
amphi = both
ankylo = crooked, bent
anta, anti = against
apo- = from, off, away
arthro = joint
artic = joint
auto- = self
bouton = button
bursa = purse
-ceps = head
circum = around
cis = on this side
clast = break, destroy
con- = with, together
condyl = knuckle, knob
cost = rib
cruci = cross
delta = triangular
desm = band, ligament
di- = separate, apart, two
dia- = across
e-, ef-, ex- = out
ec- = out, out of
facet = face or flat surface
fasci = bundle
flex = bend
foramen = an opening
foss = ditch, trench
gaster, gastr = belly
gen = produce
genio = chin
glute = buttock, rump
gompho = bolt or peg
gracil = slender
hyal = glass, transparent
-icul = small
intra = within
-issimus = superlative, the most
labrum, labri = lip
lacun = lake, cavity
lamell = small plate
lat = broad, wide
lemma = sheath
luxat = dislocate
malac = soft
masseter = chewer
medull = marrow, pith
menisc = crescent
myo, mys = muscle
neuro = nerve
ocul = eye
-oid = like, resembling
oris = mouth
osteo, oss = bone
ovi = egg
palp = touch
penna = feather
phragm = partition
phy = grow, produce
plasi, plast = form, shape
poplit = back of knee
porus = pore, opening
proli = offspring
pron = bent forward
psoas = loin
quad = four
raphe = seam
rectus = straight
rheum = watery flow
rhomb = diamond-shaped
risor = laughter
rota = wheel, revolve
sarco = flesh
sartor = tailor
scope, scopy = see
semi- = half
serrat = saw
sinu = hollow
-sis = the act of
sphinct = squeeze
spondyl = vertebra
striat = furrow, streak
supine = lying on back
sutur = seam
syn-, sym- = together
synerg = work together
teres = round
trab = beam
tract = drawn
trapez = trapezoid-shaped
tri = three
tuber = knob, knot
-ula, -ule, -ulus = little
vastus = large
vert = turn