AP Psychology BOE Review

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Example: After a sports team loses, fans might claim they knew the team would lose all along.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of variables that allows them to be tested.
Example: "Aggression" might be operationally defined as the number of physical acts of violence in a set amount of time.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual or group.
Example: Sigmund Freud's work with patients, including his case studies of neurotic individuals, helped develop psychoanalytic theory.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in its natural environment without interference.
Example: Jane Goodall's observations of chimpanzees in the wild.

Survey

A method of gathering self-reported data from participants about their attitudes, opinions, or behaviors.
Example: A poll on people's favorite movie genre.

Experiment

A research method involving manipulation of an independent variable to determine its effect on a dependent variable.
Example: John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment where he conditioned a child to fear a white rat.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment and is used for comparison.
Example: In an experiment testing a new drug, the control group receives a placebo.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the independent variable.
Example: The group receiving the actual drug in the same experiment.

Population

The entire group of people from which a sample is drawn.
Example: All high school students in the U.S. if you're conducting a survey of teenage behavior.

Random Sample

A sample selected randomly from the population, ensuring every individual has an equal chance of being selected.

Representative Sample

A sample that closely matches the characteristics of the population.
Example: A survey of 500 U.S. teens is representative of the population's diversity.

Convenience Sample

A sample chosen based on ease of access rather than random selection.
Example: Surveying students in a psychology class.

Random Assignment

The process of randomly assigning participants to experimental or control groups to reduce bias.

Double-Blind Procedure

Both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which participants are in the experimental or control group, helping eliminate bias.

Placebo

A non-active substance given to the control group in an experiment, often to test the effectiveness of a treatment.
Example: A sugar pill given to the control group in drug studies.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or changed to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Example: The amount of sleep in a study on memory recall.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured and affected by changes in the independent variable.
Example: Memory recall performance in a sleep study.

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether the results of an experiment are likely due to chance or if the observed effect is real.

Effect Size

The magnitude of a difference between groups or the strength of a relationship between variables.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values. The higher the standard deviation, the more spread out the values are.

Quantitative Measures

Data that can be measured and expressed numerically.
Example: Test scores or reaction time.

Qualitative Measures

Data that describes qualities or characteristics and cannot be measured numerically.
Example: Interviews or observations.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or overall effects.

Aggression

Behavior intended to harm or intimidate others, including physical or verbal attacks.

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the well-being of others, often resulting in helping behaviors.

Neurons

The basic building blocks of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical signals.

Axon

The long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the soma (cell body).

Soma

The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and maintains cell function.

Dendrites

The branching extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

Action Potential

A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron when it is stimulated.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty layer that insulates axons and speeds up the transmission of electrical impulses.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.

Neurotransmitters and Their Functions:

• Endorphins:
  Help reduce pain and increase pleasure.
  Too little: Chronic pain or depression.
  Too much: Euphoria or addiction.

• Glutamate:
  The main excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory and learning.
  Too little: Can lead to cognitive issues.
  Too much: Can lead to excitotoxicity and damage to neurons.

• Dopamine:
  Involved in pleasure, reward, and motor control.
  Too little: Parkinson’s disease, depression.
  Too much: Schizophrenia.

• Acetylcholine:
  Involved in muscle movement and memory.
  Too little: Alzheimer's disease, paralysis.
  Too much: Muscle cramps, spasms.

• Norepinephrine:
  Involved in arousal, alertness, and mood regulation.
  Too little: Depression, ADHD.
  Too much: Anxiety, stress.

• GABA:
  Inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.
  Too little: Anxiety, seizures.
  Too much: Sedation.

• Serotonin:
  Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
  Too little: Depression, insomnia.
  Too much: Serotonin syndrome (increased body temperature, seizures).

Endocrine System

A system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.

Pituitary Gland

The "master gland" that controls other endocrine glands and releases hormones affecting growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions like thinking, memory, and decision-making.

Corpus Callosum

A thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.

Thalamus

Acts as the brain's relay station, directing sensory and motor signals to the appropriate areas of the brain.

Hypothalamus

Regulates vital functions like hunger, thirst, and body temperature, and controls the pituitary gland.

Reticular Formation

A network of neurons that regulate arousal, attention, and sleep-wake cycles.

Medulla

Controls vital autonomic functions like heartbeat and respiration.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and motor control.

Hippocampus

Involved in forming new memories and spatial navigation.

Amygdala

Plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord; processes sensory information and controls bodily functions.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the CNS to the rest of the body, including limbs and organs.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors and the nervous system receive and detect stimuli from the environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Bottom-up Processing

Processing sensory information as it is received, starting with raw stimuli.

Top-down Processing

Using prior knowledge or expectations to interpret sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

The smallest amount of stimulus energy required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold)

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time.

Signal Detection Theory

The theory that the detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the psychological state of the individual.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus attention on one conversation while filtering out others in a noisy environment.

Selective Attention

The process of focusing on one specific aspect of experience while ignoring others.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

Circadian Rhythm

The body's internal 24-hour clock that regulates sleep and wake cycles.

Sleep Disorders:

• Sleep Apnea: Repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep.

• Night Terrors: Sudden, intense fear and panic during sleep.

• Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

• Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep.

• Somnambulism (Sleepwalking): Walking during sleep without awareness.

Sleep Stages:

• Delta Waves: Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (Stage 3 and 4).

• Sleep Spindles: Short bursts of brain activity in Stage 2 sleep.

• Alpha Waves: Brain waves associated with relaxed but awake states.

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep, associated with vivid dreaming and muscle atonia.

Sleep Theories:

• Information Processing Theory: Sleep helps us process and consolidate memories.

• Physiological Functioning Theory: Sleep helps maintain brain and body functions.

• Activation Synthesis Theory: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.

REM Rebound

The tendency to experience more REM sleep following periods of sleep deprivation.

Social Norms and Behaviors:

• Reciprocity Norm: The expectation that people will return favors.

• Conflict: A struggle between two or more parties with opposing goals.

• Social Trap: A situation in which individuals act in their self-interest, leading to negative outcomes for everyone.

• Ingroup vs. Outgroup Phenomenon: The tendency to favor one's own group over others.

• Outgroup Homogeneity Bias: The tendency to see members of other groups as being more similar to each other than they are.

Attribution Errors:

• Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal traits and underestimate situational factors in others’ behavior.

• Diffusion of Responsibility: The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible in the presence of others.

• Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in group situations.

• Social Responsibility Norm: The expectation that people will help others in need.

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

A study in which participants were assigned to be either guards or prisoners in a mock prison, demonstrating the power of situational influences on behavior.

Groupthink

The tendency for group members to conform to a consensus without critically evaluating alternatives.

Social Facilitation

The improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

Conformity and Obedience:

• Asch Experiment: A study demonstrating the power of conformity through group pressure.

• Milgram Study: An experiment on obedience where participants were willing to administer potentially lethal shocks to others under authority's orders.

Reinforcement:

• Foot-in-the-door Technique: A persuasion strategy where a small request is followed by a larger one.

• Positive Reinforcement: Rewarding a behavior to increase its occurrence.

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Learning through association; Pavlov’s dogs experiment demonstrated how a neutral stimulus can trigger a conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Learning through reinforcement and punishment. Skinner’s work with pigeons showed how reinforcement schedules affect behavior.

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Learning by watching others; demonstrated in Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment, where children mimicked aggressive behavior.

Shaping

Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired outcome through reinforcement of successive approximations.

Memory and Cognitive Processes:

• Mnemonic Device: A memory aid that helps encode information.

• Chunking: Grouping information into larger, more manageable units.

• Serial Position Effect: The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

Memory Interference:

• Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with the recall of new information.

• Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with the recall of old information.

Amnesia:

• Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories.

• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.

Types of Memory:

• Working/Short-Term Memory: The system for temporarily holding and processing information.

• Long-Term Memory: A more permanent store of information.

Encoding/Storage/Retrieval:

The processes by which information is acquired, maintained, and retrieved.

Recall and Recognition:

• Recall: Retrieving information without cues.

• Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from options.

Cognitive Biases:

• Gambler’s Fallacy: The belief that past events affect the likelihood of future events in random processes.

• Sunk-Cost Fallacy: The tendency to continue investing in something due to past investments.

Misinformation Effect

When the memory of an event is altered by misleading information after the fact.