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Disarmament

The reduction or elimination of military forces and weapons, often pursued through treaties and international agreements to promote peace and prevent conflicts.

Washington Conference (1921)

An international conference held in Washington, D.C., to address naval disarmament and Pacific security. It resulted in key agreements limiting naval armaments and maintaining stability in East Asia.

Five-Power (Naval) Treaty (1922)

An agreement between the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy that limited the construction of large warships and established a ratio for naval tonnage (5:5:3:1.75:1.75), aiming to prevent an arms race.

Nine-Power (China) Treaty (1922)

A treaty signed by nine nations, affirming China's sovereignty and territorial integrity while ensuring all signatories had equal commercial and trading rights in China (Open Door Policy).

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

An international agreement in which signatory nations, including the U.S. and France, renounced war as an instrument of national policy. However, it lacked enforcement mechanisms.

War Debts

Debts owed by European nations to the United States after World War I, primarily from loans taken to finance their war efforts. The inability to repay these debts strained international relations.

Reparations

Payments required from Germany under the Treaty of Versailles to compensate Allied nations for damages caused during World War I. These payments placed heavy economic burdens on Germany.

Dawes Plan (1924)

A U.S.-backed plan to stabilize Germany’s economy by restructuring its reparations payments, providing American loans to Germany, and reducing financial pressure on European economies.

Hoover-FDR Policies (WOR)

Refers to foreign policy approaches under Presidents Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt, focusing on isolationism, economic diplomacy, and later, interventionist measures leading into World War II.

Good Neighbor Policy

A policy introduced by FDR to improve U.S. relations with Latin America by emphasizing non-intervention and cooperation, marking a departure from previous military interventions.

Pan-American Conferences

A series of diplomatic meetings between the U.S. and Latin American nations to promote mutual cooperation, economic ties, and collective security, reinforcing the Good Neighbor Policy.

Recognition of the Soviet Union (1933)

FDR’s diplomatic move to officially recognize the USSR, establishing formal relations with the Soviet government to promote trade and counter potential threats from Germany and Japan.

Independence of the Philippines (Tydings-McDuffie Act, 1934)

A U.S. law that promised Philippine independence within ten years, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and eventual independence in 1946.

Reciprocal Trade Agreements (1934)

Authorized the U.S. president to negotiate tariff reductions on a reciprocal basis with other countries, aiming to boost international trade and economic recovery during the Great Depression.

Militarist/Fascist Aggression (WOR)

Refers to expansionist policies by militarist and fascist governments (e.g., Japan, Italy, and Germany) in the 1930s, which contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

Japanese Aggression in Manchuria (1931)

Japan’s invasion of Manchuria, China, violating international agreements. Japan established a puppet state (Manchukuo), leading to global condemnation but little concrete action.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

A U.S. policy stating that the U.S. would not recognize territorial acquisitions made by force, issued in response to Japan’s invasion of Manchuria.

Axis Powers

The military alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, formed through treaties such as the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and the Tripartite Pact (1940).

Benito Mussolini

The Fascist dictator of Italy (1922–1943) who established a totalitarian regime, pursued expansionist policies, and allied with Hitler during World War II.

Fascist Party

The political party led by Mussolini in Italy, advocating extreme nationalism, authoritarian rule, and militaristic expansion.

Fascism

A political ideology that emphasizes authoritarian leadership, nationalism, militarism, and suppression of opposition. It rejects democracy and promotes state control over many aspects of life.

Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers' Party)

A far-right political party in Germany led by Adolf Hitler, promoting German nationalism, racial superiority, and expansionism, ultimately leading to World War II and the Holocaust.

Adolf Hitler

Leader of Nazi Germany (1933–1945), who orchestrated World War II and the Holocaust. He promoted an aggressive foreign policy and totalitarian rule, leading to immense destruction.

Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

A conflict between the leftist Republican government and the right-wing Nationalists, led by Francisco Franco. Germany and Italy supported the Nationalists, while the USSR backed the Republicans. Franco’s victory led to a fascist dictatorship in Spain.

War Production Board (WPB)

A U.S. government agency established in 1942 to oversee the conversion of civilian industries to wartime production, ensuring adequate supplies of war materials.

Office of Price Administration (OPA)

A federal agency that controlled prices, wages, and rationing of essential goods (e.g., food, gasoline) during World War II to curb inflation and support the war effort.

Federal Spending

The dramatic increase in U.S. government expenditures during World War II to finance the war, leading to economic growth and a temporary end to the Great Depression.

Accumulated Debt

The national debt increased significantly during World War II due to massive government spending on military production, reaching unprecedented levels.

Business and Industry

During World War II, American businesses and industries shifted to wartime production, leading to economic expansion and innovations in manufacturing.

Research and Development (R&D)

The U.S. government heavily invested in scientific advancements during the war, leading to innovations in weaponry, radar, and medicine, including the development of nuclear technology.

Manhattan Project

A secret U.S. research project during World War II that developed the atomic bomb, leading to the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

Office of War Information (OWI)

A government agency responsible for propaganda and public information during World War II, promoting patriotism and managing war-related news.

"The Good War"

A term used to describe World War II, reflecting the popular belief that the war was a necessary struggle against fascism and totalitarianism.

Home Front (SOC, MIG)

Refers to domestic efforts and social changes during the war, including workforce shifts, migration, civil rights movements, and economic mobilization.

Wartime Migrations

The mass movement of Americans during World War II, including rural-to-urban migration, the Great Migration of African Americans to industrial cities, and the relocation of workers to war production centers.

Wartime Strategies (WOR)

The military and political plans developed by the Allies to defeat the Axis Powers, including strategic bombing, island hopping, and the invasion of Europe.

Battle of the Atlantic

A prolonged naval conflict between the Allies and Germany (1939–1945) for control of Atlantic shipping routes, crucial for supplying Britain and the Soviet Union.

"Strategic Bombing"

A military strategy used by the Allies to target enemy industrial centers, infrastructure, and cities to weaken the Axis war effort.

Dwight Eisenhower

The Supreme Allied Commander in Europe during World War II, responsible for leading the D-Day invasion and later serving as the 34th U.S. president.

D-Day (June 6, 1944)

The Allied invasion of Normandy, France, marking the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.

Holocaust

The systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of other persecuted groups by Nazi Germany during World War II.

Battle of Midway (June 1942)

A pivotal naval battle in which the U.S. decisively defeated Japan, turning the tide of the Pacific War in favor of the Allies.

Island Hopping

The U.S. military strategy of capturing key islands in the Pacific, bypassing heavily fortified Japanese positions, and moving closer to Japan.

Douglas MacArthur

A U.S. Army general who led Allied forces in the Pacific, oversaw the occupation of Japan after the war, and played a key role in the Korean War.

Kamikaze

Japanese suicide pilots who conducted deliberate crashes into Allied ships as a last-ditch effort to resist defeat.

J. Robert Oppenheimer

The lead scientist of the Manhattan Project, known as the "father of the atomic bomb."

Atomic Bomb

A powerful nuclear weapon developed during World War II and used by the U.S. on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender.

Francisco Franco

The fascist dictator of Spain from 1939 to 1975, who came to power after winning the Spanish Civil War with the support of Hitler and Mussolini.

Ethiopia

Invaded and occupied by Italy in 1935 under Mussolini, an early act of Axis aggression before World War II.

Rhineland

A demilitarized region of Germany that Hitler reoccupied in 1936, violating the Treaty of Versailles and signaling Germany’s growing aggression.

Sudetenland

A German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia annexed by Hitler in 1938 as part of the Munich Agreement.

Munich Conference (1938)

A meeting where Britain and France appeased Hitler by allowing Germany to annex the Sudetenland in hopes of preventing further conflict.

Appeasement

A policy of conceding to aggressive powers to avoid war, notably followed by Britain and France before World War II.

Poland

Invaded by Germany on September 1, 1939, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany, officially starting World War II.

Blitzkrieg

A German military strategy meaning "lightning war," involving fast-moving, coordinated attacks using tanks, aircraft, and infantry.

Isolationist Response (WOR)

The U.S. policy of avoiding involvement in European conflicts before World War II, driven by public and political resistance to another war.

Gerald Nye

A U.S. senator who led the Nye Committee, which investigated war profiteering in World War I and fueled isolationist sentiment.

Neutrality Acts (1935-1937)

Laws passed by Congress to prevent U.S. involvement in foreign conflicts by restricting arms sales and loans to warring nations.

America First Committee

A prominent isolationist group that opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, with members including Charles Lindbergh.

Charles Lindbergh

A famous aviator and leading spokesman for the America First Committee, advocating against U.S. entry into World War II.

Isolationism

A foreign policy stance focused on avoiding entanglement in international conflicts, dominant in the U.S. before Pearl Harbor.

FDR's Response (WOR)

Franklin D. Roosevelt gradually moved the U.S. from isolationism to supporting the Allies through policies like Lend-Lease and military aid.

Quarantine Speech (1937)

FDR’s speech calling for international opposition to aggressor nations (Germany, Italy, Japan), signaling a shift from strict neutrality.

"Cash and Carry" (1939)

A policy allowing belligerent nations to purchase U.S. weapons if they paid in cash and transported them using their own ships.

Selective Service Training and Service Act (1940)

The first peacetime draft in U.S. history, requiring men aged 21-35 to register for military service.

Destroyers-for-Bases Deal (1940)

An agreement between the U.S. and Britain where the U.S. gave 50 old naval destroyers to Britain in exchange for military base access.

Third Term (FDR)

FDR was re-elected in 1940, breaking the two-term tradition, due to the global crisis leading up to World War II.

Wendell Willkie

The Republican candidate in the 1940 presidential election who opposed FDR but supported aid to Britain.

"Four Freedoms" (1941)

FDR’s speech outlining fundamental freedoms (speech, worship, want, fear) that justified U.S. involvement in World War II.

Lend-Lease Act (1941)

A law allowing the U.S. to provide military aid to Allied nations without direct payment, marking a major step away from neutrality.

Atlantic Charter (1941)

A joint statement by FDR and Churchill outlining postwar goals, including self-determination and free trade.

Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)

A surprise Japanese attack on a U.S. naval base in Hawaii, prompting the U.S. to enter World War II.

Civil Rights

The war effort highlighted racial inequalities, leading to increased activism for African American rights.

"Double V" Campaign

A movement advocating victory against fascism abroad and racial discrimination at home.

Executive Order to Prohibit Discrimination (EO 8802, 1941)

FDR’s order banning racial discrimination in defense industries, promoting fair employment practices.

Smith v. Allwright (1944)

A Supreme Court case that ruled against racial exclusion in Democratic primaries, a victory for civil rights.

Braceros

Mexican workers allowed to work in the U.S. during the war under a labor agreement to meet agricultural demands.

Internment Camps

Facilities where Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated during World War II due to wartime fears.

Korematsu v. U.S. (1944)

A Supreme Court case that upheld the internment of Japanese Americans as a wartime necessity.

"Rosie the Riveter"

A cultural icon representing women who worked in defense industries during the war.

Wartime Solidarity

The unification of diverse social groups in support of the war effort, despite racial and economic tensions.

Nagasaki

Facilities where Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated during World War II due to wartime fears of espionage and sabotage following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor.

Wartime Diplomacy (WOR)

The diplomatic negotiations and agreements made between Allied leaders during World War II to coordinate military strategy and post-war planning.

Harry S. Truman

The 33rd President of the United States who succeeded Franklin D. Roosevelt after his death in April 1945. Truman authorized the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender.

Big Three

The leaders of the major Allied powers during World War II: Franklin D. Roosevelt (U.S.), Winston Churchill (Great Britain), and Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union), who met at various conferences to discuss military strategy and post-war arrangements.

Casablanca

A 1943 conference where Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill declared that they would accept nothing less than the "unconditional surrender" of the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan).

"Unconditional surrender"

The demand by the Allies that Axis powers must surrender without any negotiated conditions. This was a key policy outlined in the Casablanca Conference.

Tehran

The 1943 meeting between the Big Three, where they discussed the opening of a second front in Europe (D-Day) and other military strategies, as well as post-war plans.

Yalta

A 1945 meeting of the Big Three, where they discussed the division of Germany into occupation zones and the establishment of post-war Europe, including the promise of free elections in Eastern European countries (a promise later broken by Stalin).

Free elections

A commitment made at the Yalta Conference to allow democratic elections in the countries of Eastern Europe liberated from Nazi control, although the Soviet Union later imposed communist regimes in the region.

Potsdam

The final conference between the Big Three in July 1945, where the Allies issued an ultimatum to Japan for surrender and began discussions on how to handle post-war Europe, which deepened tensions leading to the Cold War.

United Nations

An international organization established in 1945 to promote peace, security, and cooperation among nations. It replaced the League of Nations and became central to post-war diplomacy.

Atomic weapons

Nuclear bombs developed by the United States during the Manhattan Project. The U.S. used these weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, marking the first and only use of nuclear weapons in warfare.

Hiroshima

The first Japanese city to be targeted by an atomic bomb, dropped by the United States on August 6, 1945. The bombing contributed to Japan's decision to surrender, effectively ending World War II.