Comprehensive Study Guide: The War of 1812 and the Second War for Independence

Pre-War Tensions and the Native American Western Confederacy

The War of 1812 was preceded by ongoing tensions regarding the British violation of the Treaty of Paris $1783$ and Jay’s Treaty.
The British continued to trade with Native Americans in the Ohio River Valley, which the U.S. viewed as an infringement on their sovereignty.
By the year $1800$ , over $400,000$ settlers from the U.S. had moved west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Chief Tecumseh of the Shawnee tribe revived the native Western Confederacy in $1809$ to resist American expansion.
Tecumseh was supported by his younger brother, Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader known to U.S. settlers as "the Prophet."
The Prophet initiated a reform movement within the Shawnee tribe with the goal of casting off all traces of white "civilization," including Christianity.
His message emphasized praying for the aid of the Great Spirit to drive out the white invaders.
In $1810$ , Tecumseh called for direct attacks on American frontier settlements.
Throughout $1810$ and $1811$ , Tecumseh and the Prophet gathered various tribes from the western Great Lakes at the holy village of Prophetstown.

The Virginia Dynasty and Westward Expansion

Thomas Jefferson was elected to the Presidency in $1800$ and reelected in $1804$ .
Jefferson long favored the removal of Native Americans to lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. He gave Natives two choices: choose to move west or live surrounded by white American farmers and assimilate.
Following Jefferson, the "Virginia Dynasty" continued with James Madison and James Monroe, each serving two terms.
This dynasty was supported by farmers in the South and West and completed Jefferson’s "Revolution of $1800$ ," keeping Democratic-Republicans in control of the federal government.
They reversed many Federalist policies and actively promoted westward movement.

The War Hawks and the Battle of Tippecanoe

In $1809$ , General William Henry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Territory, invited Native American chiefs to Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Harrison persuaded these chiefs to sign away three million acres of tribal land to the U.S. government.
These actions were supported by President Jefferson and a group of congressmen known as the "Western War Hawks."
The War Hawks were led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina; they actively promoted war with Britain.
In November $1811$ , while Tecumseh was away, Governor Harrison and $1,000$ troops attacked Prophetstown on the banks of the Tippecanoe River.
Harrison burned the Shawnee capital to the ground.
This victory at the Battle of Tippecanoe made Harrison a national hero, despite his troops suffering heavy losses and the significant local anger it caused among Native Americans in the Indiana Territory.

Declaration of the "Second War for Independence"

The War of 1812 is the first declared war in United States history and is often called the "second war for independence."
The primary justifications for war were the discovery that the Native American confederacy was using arms provided by British Canada and resentment over British constraints on American trade.
President James Madison believed Britain was attempting to strangle U.S. trade and cripple the national economy.
Madison and the Democratic-Republican Party believed only a strong assertion of rights could prove the viability of American nationhood.
Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war in June $1812$ .
Voting was divided by region: - Federalists in New England and the Mid-Atlantic regions, representing merchants, voted against the war. - Support came primarily from the South and West.
Funding the war was difficult because merchants in Boston and the Northeast refused to lend money to the effort.

The War at Sea and the Land Campaign

The U.S. Navy was badly outnumbered with only $16$ ships.
Key naval successes were scored by three warships: the $President$ , the $United\,States$ , and the $Constitution$ . These ships were known for their speed and ability to sail close to enemy vessels to open fire.
In November $1812$ , the British Navy blockaded the Chesapeake and Delaware bays, eventually extending the blockade along the entire East Coast.
By the end of $1813$ , most American ships were locked in port.
The land military was poorly prepared due to funding cuts under the Democratic-Republicans.
Detroit was captured by the British in August $1812$ , shortly after the war began.
In $1813$ , an American fleet defeated the British on Lake Erie, allowing American soldiers to retake Detroit.
Tecumseh fought for the British, hoping they would help stop U.S. westward expansion. He was killed at the Battle of the Thames in $1813$ .

Major Battles and National Symbols

At Baltimore's Fort McHenry in $1812$ , American forces resisted a British naval bombardment.
Francis Scott Key, an American prisoner on a British ship during the battle, was inspired to write "The Star-Spangled Banner."
In $1814$ , the British raided and burned towns along the Atlantic coast, eventually entering Washington, D.C.
In retaliation for the American victory at the Battle of York (the capital of Upper Canada), where U.S. forces burned the governor's mansion and legislative buildings, the British burned the Capitol, the White House, and other public buildings on August $24$ , $1814$ .
President Madison and federal officials were forced to flee the capital.

General Andrew Jackson and the Southern Theater

General Andrew Jackson gained national fame in the South through a six-month campaign involving four battles.
In March $1814$ , Jackson defeated the Creek tribe at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in Alabama.
This victory destroyed Native American military power in the South and launched Jackson's political career.
Jackson’s most famous victory occurred on January $8$ , $1815$ , at the Battle of New Orleans, which took place after the peace treaty had been signed.
Jackson led $5,400$ Americans against a superior force of $8,000$ British Redcoats.
Hundreds of British troops were killed; the Americans used cotton bales for protection.

Peace Treaties and Post-War Diplomacy

The Treaty of Ghent was signed on Christmas Eve, $1814$ , declaring an armistice.
The treaty did not address impressment or neutral shipping rights, yet it confirmed American independence and fostered nationalism.
Following the war, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams negotiated several treaties with Great Britain and Spain: - $1815$ Commerce and Navigation Treaty: Reopened trade with Great Britain. - $1817$ Rush-Bagot Agreement: Limited the number of warships on the Great Lakes for both nations. - Convention of $1818$ : Set the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory at the $49^{th}$ parallel as far west as the Rocky Mountains, and established a $10$ -year joint occupation of the Oregon Territory. - $1819$ Adams-Onis Treaty: Spain, too weak to police its territories, ceded Florida to the U.S. and gave up claims to the Oregon Territory.

Domestic Impact and the Legacy of the War

Native American Resistance: The death of Tecumseh in $1813$ ended the united native resistance in the Northwest Territories and led to the collapse of his Western Confederacy.
Political Shifts: The war produced heroes like Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison, both of whom would become President. The Federalist Party declined and disappeared after $1815$ , leading to the "Era of Good Feelings" with only one political party (Democratic-Republicans).
Nationalism: A distinct national literature emerged, featuring works like Washington Irving’s "Rip Van Winkle" and James Fenimore Cooper’s "The Last of the Mohicans."
Military and Infrastructure: Washington D.C. was rebuilt, and the army was expanded to $10,000$ men. The war exposed weaknesses in defense and transportation; difficulties invading Canada highlighted the need for better roads.
Westward Migration: Land-hungry settlers moved into the Northwest territories. Between $1815$ and $1840$ , six new states were admitted (Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Alabama, Mississippi, and Maine). By $1840$ , $2/5$ of the U.S. population lived west of the Appalachians.
Sectionalism: The Northwest Ordinance of $1787$ prohibited slavery in Northwest Territories, making the Ohio River the boundary between free and slave states.

The Hartford Convention and the End of the Federalist Party

In $1814$ , Federalist representatives from MA, CT, RI, NH, and VT held a secret meeting in Connecticut called the Hartford Convention.
They sought financial assistance for loss of trade and the abolishment of the $3/5$ clause.
They were concerned about the decline of New England's dominance in national politics.
Their grievances appeared petty following the victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent, and the party disappeared entirely shortly after $1815$ .