Scientific Revolution continued

John Locke's Contractarian Government

Discusses the concept that individuals in the state of nature form contracts with their rulers.
Contrasts with absolutism which mandates blind obedience and nominations.
Emphasizes the right to rebel if the ruler breaks the contract.

Focuses on England during the 17th and early 18th centuries.
Describes the instability and political unreliability of this period.
Highlights the revolutions of the 1640s and 1650s and the Glorious Revolution in England.
Notes similar upheavals occurring throughout Europe during the same time.

Indicates a significant period of scientific discovery across Europe in the 17th century, particularly in England.
Examples of prominent scientists and discoveries:
- William Harvey: Discovered the systematic circulation of blood.
- Robert Boyle: Established Boyle's law, which describes the relationship between the volume, pressure, and density of gases.
Describes the scientific community at Oxford and Cambridge in the 1660s and 70s, leading to the establishment of the Royal Society.

Instituted as a platform for men of affairs and scientists to gather, share discoveries, and discuss various subjects such as optics and chemistry.
Notable patrons and members included:
- Charles II: Became a patron in 1660.
- Christopher Wren: Notable architect, rebuilt significant areas in London post-Great Fire of 1665, including St. Paul's Cathedral.
- Isaac Newton: A key member, born in 1642.
- William Petty: Notable mathematician.

Born to poor farmers, faced initial educational challenges due to the focus on classical subjects at Cambridge.
Conducted independent experiments in his dorm room and became captivated by astronomy, physics, and mathematics.
Major discoveries by the age of 24:
- Law of Gravitation
- Calculus
- Theory of light and color
Major works published:
- Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1686): Outlined his theories formally a significant 20 years after his initial discoveries.
- The concept that every object in the universe attracts every other object, famously quantified in gravitational equations.
Newton’s influence and contributions to public life, including serving in Parliament and receiving knighthood from Queen Anne in 1705.
Recognition from contemporaries such as Voltaire, who noted Newton's impact on science and philosophy.

The Royal Society funded expeditions to discover land to balance Earth's continents based on geographic theories, resulting in the discovery of Australia.
Annual awards for significant scientific contributions (e.g., Benjamin Franklin's work in electricity).

Explores a shift in religious beliefs among educated Europeans from 1650 to 1789.
Earliest educated individuals were predominantly believing Christians, adhering to doctrines like the Nicene Creed.
By the end of the 18th century, many educated individuals adopted more agnostic or non-Christian beliefs.
Scientists of the 17th century did not intend to create discord with Christianity; many were devout.
- Example: John Locke defended Christianity despite promoting rational belief in religion.
- Robert Boyle supported foreign missions and established lectures to defend Christianity.
- Newton prioritized understanding biblical prophecy and alchemy over scientific endeavors.

Newton spent significant time deciphering biblical prophecies, believing they could illuminate the current world.
His works included:
- Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and Chronologies of the Ancient Kingdoms.
Proposed genealogical calculations to determine the date of the world's creation, contesting Archbishop Usher's dating of creation.
Claimed that Christ's second coming would occur in 2060, a date theorized based on extensive calculations.

By the 18th century, Newton identified as a Unitarian, rejecting the Trinitarian concept in Christianity, privately publishing theological perspectives.
John Locke also likely held non-Trinitarian beliefs, underscoring the importance of reason as the basis of religious truth.

Deism emerged as a philosophical perspective asserting a rational understanding of God as the universe's creator, who no longer intervened.
Deists believed in a rational God, contrasting with traditional Christian beliefs of a personal deity.
Significant figures who embodied these views included:
- Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, who expressed non-Christian deistic beliefs while maintaining social ties to Christianity.
- Jefferson’s Bible excluded miracles, focusing on moral teachings.

The late 17th and early 18th centuries saw a societal shift towards skepticism of religious doctrines influenced by thinkers from the Netherlands,
- Baruch Spinoza: Introduced radical ideas about naturalism and rationality, viewed God and nature as synonymous.
Increasingly, deism lost elements of Christianity, evolving into a broader rationalist movement separating God from traditional religious contexts.
Resistance from the established church led to growing secularism in educated circles by the mid-18th century, influenced by population growth and societal changes in England.

The convergence of scientific exploration, philosophical reflection, and shifting religious ideologies shaped the trajectory toward the Enlightenment and fundamentally altered the understanding of faith in Europe.