Sex, Gender, and Sexuality Notes

Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

  • Chapter 10 explores human sexuality, sexual identity and behavior, sexual disorders and problems, and real-world sexuality.

Studying Human Sexuality

  • Sexuality: The ways in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings, including sexual arousal, orientation, and behaviors.

Early Studies

  • Victorian Beliefs and Practices:
    • Masturbation was believed to lead to blindness, impotence, acne, and insanity.
    • Nocturnal emissions were thought to cause brain damage and death.
  • Pioneer Sex Researcher Havelock Ellis:
    • Attempted to correct prevalent myths.
    • Devoted his life to developing reliable and accurate scientific information.

Modern Research

  • The Kinsey Reports:
    • 18,000 surveys and interviews with detailed questions about sexual beliefs and practices.
    • Many subsequent similar studies by others.
  • Masters and Johnson Research:
    • Featured laboratory experimentation and observation.
    • First research to measure physiological response during sexual activity.

Sexuality Across Cultures

  • Cross-cultural differences in sexual behavior exist.
  • Romantic kissing is not universal; fewer than half of 168 cultures studied engage in it.
  • Many people in Sub-Saharan Africa, New Guinea, the Amazon, and native cultures in Central America find romantic kissing uncomfortable or repulsive.

Sexual Identity and Behavior: Describing Sex and Gender

  • Sex: State of being biologically male or female; sexual activities.
  • Gender: Psychological and sociocultural traits typically associated with a person’s biological sex, such as masculinity and femininity.

Dimensions of Sex and Gender

  • Sex and gender are interrelated and continually interacting.
    • Chromosomes:
      • Typically Male: XY
      • Typically Female: XX
    • Gonads:
      • Typically Male: Testes
      • Typically Female: Ovaries
    • Hormones:
      • Typically Male: Mainly androgens
      • Typically Female: Mainly estrogens
    • Primary Sex Characteristics (External):
      • Typically Male: Penis, scrotum
      • Typically Female: Labia minor, clitoris, vaginal opening
    • Primary Sex Characteristics (Internal Accessory Structures):
      • Typically Male: Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, Cowper’s gland
      • Typically Female: Vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, cervix
    • Secondary Sex Characteristics:
      • Typically Male: Beard, lower voice, wider shoulders, body hair, sperm emission
      • Typically Female: Breasts, wider hips, body hair, menstruation
    • Gender Identity (Self-Definition):
      • Typically Male: Perceives self as male
      • Typically Female: Perceives self as female
    • Gender Expression:
      • Typically Male: Masculine
      • Typically Female: Feminine
    • Gender Role (Societal Expectations):
      • Typically Male: Masculinity
      • Typically Female: Femininity

Normal Variations in Biological Sex

  • Combinations/variations exist in chromosomes (e.g., XXY).
  • Intersex individuals exhibit variations in sex characteristics.

Normal Variations in Gender

  • Gender Identity:
    • Agendered: Not identifying with any gender.
    • Gender Fluid: Moving between gender identities.
    • Uncertain and/or All: Identifying in multiple ways.
  • Gender Expression: How one outwardly expresses gender.
  • Gender Roles: Societal expectations of how each gender should behave.

Theories of Gender Role Development

  • Social-Learning Theory: Gender roles are learned through passive processes.
  • Cognitive-Developmental Theory: Individuals actively construct their gender roles.

Potential Problems with Gender Roles

  • Gender-Role Stereotypes: Beliefs and expectations about typical thoughts, feelings, and actions applied to all men and women.
    • Limitation of career options.
    • Contributes to the gender wage gap.
      • Women earn $0.85 for every dollar earned by white men (AAUW, 2019; Graf et al., 2019; Hegewisch, 2019).
  • Androgyny: A combination of both masculine and feminine traits.

Views on How Gender Identity is Developed

  • Nature.
  • Nurture.
  • Biopsychosocial.

Normal Variations in Gender Identity

  • Transgender: Gender identity doesn’t match biological sex.
    • Transgender should not be confused with gender-bending or cross-dressing.

Sexual Orientation

  • Heterosexual: Attracted to people of another biological sex.
  • Lesbian/Gay: Attracted to people of the same biological sex.
  • Bisexual: Attracted to people of both biological sexes.
  • Pansexual: Attracted to members of all genders, including those who do not identify with a gender.
  • Asexual: Does not experience erotic sexual attraction to others, but may experience emotional or romantic attraction.
Understanding Sexual Orientation
  • Interplay of genetics and biology, environment, and social environment.
  • Sexual Prejudice: A negative attitude directed toward individuals based on their sexual orientation.

Sexual Arousal and Response

  • Sexuality is more than reproduction, including connection, intimacy, pleasure, and release of sexual tension.
  • Pair bonding.
  • Sexual response cycle.

Sexual Disorders and Problems

Paraphilic Disorders

  • Paraphilic Disorder Defined:
    • Fetishistic disorder.
    • Exhibitionistic disorder.
  • Explaining and Treating Paraphilic Disorders:
    • Various causal explanations.
      • Biological factors.
      • Psychoanalytic theory.
      • Learning theory/behaviorism.
    • Treatments.
      • Cognitive-behavior therapy (e.g., aversive therapy).

Other Sexual Dysfunctions

  • Sexual Dysfunction Defined:
    • Male Disorders:
      • Erectile disorder.
      • Premature (early) ejaculation.
    • Female Disorders:
      • Female orgasmic disorder.
      • Vaginismus.
    • Both Male and Female Disorders:
      • Female sexual interest/arousal disorder and male hypoactive sexual desire disorder (disinterest).
      • Substance/medication-induced sexual dysfunction.
    • Sexual dysfunctions invariably involve the need for both partners to work together to find solutions.
Causes of Sexual Dysfunction
  • Biological Factors:
    • Cigarette smoking, diabetes, alcoholism, hormonal deficiencies, circulatory problems, drug reactions.
  • Psychological Influences:
    • Negative thoughts; heightened emotional state.
    • Performance anxiety.
  • Social and Cultural Factors:
    • Sexual scripts (what, when, where, how, and with whom).
    • Gender roles and sex problems.
    • Double standard.

Sex Therapy

  • Interviews and Examinations:
    • Aimed toward determining cause.
      • Organic, psychological, or a combination of both.
  • Masters & Johnson’s Sex Therapy Program:
    • Relationship focus (on the two people).
    • Investigate biological and psychosocial factors.
    • Emphasis on cognitive factors (e.g., performance or other anxiety).
    • Specific behavioral techniques, including “homework assignments.”

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

  • Formerly called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
Statistics
  • Millions of new infections each year in North America alone.
  • A substantial majority of those infected are under 35 years of age.
  • If left untreated, can lead to severe problems, e.g., infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cancer, or death.
Example
  • AIDS.
    • HIV positive – being infected by HIV.
  • Male-female differences in susceptibility to STIs
Additional Dangers and Challenges of Contracting and Treating STIs
  • Many infected people are asymptomatic.
  • It is often impossible to tell whether a sexual partner is infected.
  • Most STIs are readily cured in their early stages.
  • Prevention is key.

Real World Sexuality: Sexual Victimization

  • Victimization Defined: Any sexual activity that includes one or more of the following:
    • Lack of mutual consent.
    • Coercion.
    • Exploitation.
    • Assault of another.
  • Examples of Victimization:
    • Child sexual abuse.
    • Sexual assault.
    • Sexual harassment.

Child Sexual Abuse (CSA)

  • Defined as child molestation or pedophilia.
  • Forms are widely varied and may or may not involve any direct physical contact.
  • Long-term effects are common (as children and adults) and vary according to a number of factors (duration, closeness of perpetrator to victim, level of violence).
  • Rates of disclosure are increasing, and time delay is decreasing.
Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse
  • Practical Steps:
    • Education: Know the risks and facts; education of children (e.g., avoid