AP Literature Comprehensive Study Guide
The Medieval Era (El Medioevo)
1. El Conde Lucanor / Infante Don Juan Manuel
This narrative work is structured as a dialogue between a servant, Patronio, and his master, Conde Lucanor. The master seeks advice regarding a friend who is considering marrying a woman known for being extremely bossy and difficult. Patronio responds by telling a story about a young man who married a formidable woman and established authority from the very first moment. The educational crux of the story is that first impressions are definitive. The author, a Spanish nobleman, uses this fable to explain that one must always present a strong and favorable impression initially so that subsequent judgments are not altered. The moral of the fable underscores this concept: people will judge you based on what you appear to be from the start.
2. Romance del Rey Moro que Perdió Alhama / Anónimo
In this poem, a Moorish king receives news that he has lost the city of Alhama in battle. The king laments his misfortune, but he faces harsh criticism from those around him for his perceived weakness and failures in leadership. Ultimately, the king is left alone as a consequence of his errors. The romance was a primary form of communication during the Middle Ages. These poems are characterized by octosyllabic verses and a musical quality, serving as a form of popular poetry. Structurally, romances often begin in "media reis" (in the middle of things), meaning they have no formal beginning or end. They frequently incorporate direct dialogue among characters.
The 16th Century and the Spanish Conquest
3. Visión de los vencidos: Presagios según los informantes de Sahagún / Miguel León-Portilla
This work compiles accounts from Sahagún and Mexica informants who recorded omens in both Nahuatl and Spanish between the years and , found in the Códex Florentino. A second version, known as the "Testimonio de Diego Muñoz Camargo," was written by the son of a noble Tlaxcalan woman and a Spanish conqueror. Miguel León-Portilla, a th-century Mexican historian, compiled these into "Visión de los vencidos." The text details specific omens that allegedly occurred years prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquerors, predicting the fall of the empire.
4. Se ha perdido el pueblo mexica / Miguel León-Portilla
This is a lyrical poem with a sad and elegiac tone, characterized by a profound sense of lamentation. The poetic voice expresses great pain through recurring themes of crying and loss, utilizing specific terms such as "llanto" (weeping), "lágrimas" (tears), "¡oh amigos!" (oh friends), and "hemos perdido" (we have lost). The global significance of the poem is the portrayal of the anguish and desolation of a defeated people. The poet employs various literary resources to heighten the dramatic impact of the Mexica defeat.
5. Segunda Carta de Relación / Hernán Cortés
Written during the era when Spain was conquering lands in the New World (the Americas), this document marks the beginning of the so-called "Cartas de relación." These were long, official reports addressed to Emperor Carlos V. In these letters, Cortés was required to provide detailed and punctual descriptions of the newly discovered lands and their inhabitants. He also detailed the various alliances, wars, and political or military events that transpired during the conquest campaign.
The Spanish Golden Age (Siglo de Oro) - Renaissance (16th Century)
6. Lazarillo de Tormes / Anónimo
This anonymous novel is the progenitor of the picaresque genre, featuring a protagonist (a "pícaro") who survives by his wits and often mocks others. The story follows the life of a boy who suffers extreme hardships while serving different masters. Key themes explored in the work include hunger, abandonment, cunning (picardía), loneliness, survival, greed, malice, and deception. The novel represents a blend of childhood innocence with the harsh reality of human behavior.
7. Soneto XXIII: “En tanto de que Rosa y Azucena” / Garcilaso de la Vega
The central theme of this soneto, and much of the author's work, is "Carpe Diem" (seize the day). The poem focuses on the desire to make a woman realize that youth occurs only once in a lifetime. To emphasize her beauty, the poet compares her features to elements of nature. Garcilaso was a Spanish Renaissance poet and a prominent figure of the Golden Age. This poem is an Italian-style sonnet consisting of four stanzas (two quatrains and two tercets) with verses of syllables and a specific rhyme scheme. It utilizes metaphors, similes, and personifications.
The Spanish Golden Age (Siglo de Oro) - Baroque (17th Century)
8. Don Quijote de la Mancha / Miguel de Cervantes
Widely considered the first modern novel, this Spanish work parodies traditional books of chivalry. It tells the story of a man driven mad by reading chivalric romances who sets out to find adventure accompanied by his faithful servant and friend, Sancho Panza. Throughout his journey, Quijote encounters numerous problems while attempting to become a knight and defend the honor of his lady, Dulcinea. The novel explores themes of reality versus illusion, madness, love, betrayal, deception, loyalty, and friendship.
9. Soneto CLXVI: “Mientras por competir con tu Cabello” / Luis de Góngora y Argote
This poem revisited the theme of "Carpe Diem," with the poet urging his beloved to live in the moment and enjoy her youth before it fades. It is a sonnet of a romantic nature characterized by an abundance of metaphors, hyperbatons, and similes. Góngora was a famous Spanish poet noted for his "culterano" style, which was highly educated and complex. He is also known for the use of "gongorismo," an ornate style heavy on hyperbaton to give greater force to the poetry. This style also influenced other poets of the era, such as Sor Juana Inés.
10. Salmo XVII: “Mire los Muros de la Patria Mía” / Francisco de Quevedo y Villegas
While the theme of "Carpe Diem" is present, this poem focuses more intensely on the approach of death and the idea that time is an invincible enemy. There is a pervasive sense of defeat regarding the passage of time. Quevedo was a Spanish Baroque poet and a rival of Góngora, as he disliked the culteranismo style. In this poem, he critiques Spanish society and the King, lamenting that his homeland is no longer what it used to be. The work utilizes personification and metaphors to convey its message.
11. El Burlador de Sevilla / Tirso de Molina
This play explores themes of deception, the abuse of power by men, complicity between individuals, the self-interest of women, and social class differences. The protagonist, Don Juan, deceives many women but is ultimately judged by Don Gonzalo and dragged to hell. Tirso de Molina was a Spanish priest and dramatist of the Golden Age, alongside Quevedo. His writing style reflects a deep understanding of human nature, and his characters are designed to inspire a mixture of admiration, sorrow, and pity.
12. Hombres Necios / Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
This satirical poem targets men who criticize women without realizing that they are the very ones who incite women to the behavior they condemn. It is a feminist-leaning poem that presents the author's critical perspective on men. The poem is written as a "redondilla," which is a four-line stanza of minor art with a consonant rhyme scheme of ABBA. This form allows for short, sarcastic verses. Sor Juana utilizes the retruécano (pun/wordplay), culteranismo, hyperbaton (gongorismos), and sophisticated wordplay to empower the verses.
Romanticism (19th Century)
13. En Una Tempestad / José María Heredia
This romantic poem blends the themes of nature and divinity. The poet addresses an approaching hurricane, providing highly descriptive accounts of his observations. The work serves as a bridge between Neoclassicism (characterized by strict rules) and Romanticism (characterized by freedom, anguish, and melancholy). As a Cuban poet, Heredia was a pioneer of the romantic style, utilizing literary devices like hyperbaton, metaphors, and similes.
14. Rima LIII: “Volverán las oscuras Golondrinas” / Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
In this poem, Bécquer reminisces about a past love and the memories that will never return. He asserts that the specific love he felt for her is unique and will never be found again in this world. It is considered one of the most famous love poems in the Spanish language and represents the pinnacle of the romantic style. The poet’s pain and anguish are reflected throughout the entirety of the work.
Modernism (Late 19th and Early 20th Century)
15. Nuestra América / José Martí
This essay presents Martí’s vision for the situation in the Americas. He criticizes the "Northern neighbor" (the United States) as an oppressive yoke and advocates for the independence of Latin America. The essay shows early principles of the Modernist style, including ideas of change and an emphasis on cultural and racial identity. Martí employs numerous metaphors to argue for the preservation of Latin American heritage.
16. A Roosevelt / Rubén Darío
This poem is addressed to the President of the United States (Theodore Roosevelt) and serves as a critique of U.S. foreign policy regarding southern nations. The author complains about the treatment these countries receive. Rubén Darío is considered both the creator and the greatest exponent of Modernism. This movement sought to escape the romantic style by creating its own language and idioms, often through a lens of confrontation and struggle.
Generation of '98 (Early 20th Century)
17. He andado muchos Caminos / Antonio Machado
This poem reflects on life as a journey. The narrative voice is in the first person singular, and the poem features asonant rhyme in the sound "a" in the odd-numbered verses. The verses are generally of minor art (octosyllabic), though verse is an alexandrine. Machado uses resources such as anaphora (verses through ), symbolism (verse ), hyperbole (verses through and ), synesthesia (verse ), polysyndeton (stanzas and ), and ellipsis (verse ). Although Machado was friends with Darío, he claimed not to be influenced by Modernism, yet his style remains paused, descriptive, and melancholy.
18. San Manuel Bueno, Mártir / Miguel de Unamuno
This novel tells the story of San Manuel through a letter written by Ángela to the bishop. It is revealed that the man who is about to be canonized as a saint did not actually believe in God. Themes include existence, death, faith, doubt, the "pious lie," and love for one's neighbor. Unamuno, a writer of the Generation of '98, uses the novel to suggest that what we believe is not always true and that it may be better to believe without seeing than to spend life seeking the power to believe. The work reflects the author's own anguish and lack of faith.
Realism and Naturalism (Late 19th and Early 20th Century)
19. Las Medias Rojas / Emilia Pardo Bazán
The primary theme is the family relationship between an elderly father and his daughter, who dreams of emigrating to America. Living in extreme poverty, the girl buys a pair of red stockings, which triggers a tragedy where she is brutally disfigured by her insensitive father. Pardo Bazán, a Spanish noblewoman and countess, wrote in a realist and naturalist style, seeking to portray the crude reality of the poor and lower classes of Spanish society with unflinching detail.
20. El Hijo / Horacio Quiroga
The Uruguayan author deals with the death of a son in a hunting accident and the intense family bonds involved. The father eventually loses his mind after his son accidentally shoots himself. Quiroga’s style is fatalistic, and his stories are usually narrated in a linear fashion. Common themes in his work include tragedy, death, and the losing battle of man against a nature that cannot be conquered.
Postmodernism and Feminism (20th Century)
21. Peso Ancestral / Alfonsina Storni
In this poem, the Argentine author laments the social prohibition against men crying, which she views as a heavy ancestral weight they must carry. When she tastes a man's tear, it tastes like poison to her. While she feels pity for men, she also criticizes them for their foolishness. The theme of machismo is central. Storni, often described as a poet disappointed by love and men, uses this work to express both sorrow and mockery, similar to the style of Sor Juana Inés.
22. A Julia de Burgos / Julia de Burgos
This poem from Puerto Rico compares two versions of the "self": the poet and professional Julia versus the submissive woman who accepts societal norms. The goal is to criticize women who conform to imposed social expectations. The tone is confessional, and the structure is a "pareado" (couplet). Burgos uses anaphora, metaphors, and asyndeton. The work sits at a crossroads of Vanguardism and Existentialism, concerning itself with both change and the meaning of life.
Vanguardism and Surrealism (20th Century)
23. Walking Around / Pablo Neruda
This Chilean poem is an existentialist work where the poet attempts to find himself but fails. He perceives himself as a human being wandering through a mundane world full of confusion. There is a palpable sense of disgust and weariness (hastío) regarding life. Written in free verse, the poem explores life's boredom in a complex and initially confusing manner, utilizing a wide array of literary figures.
24. La Casa de Bernarda Alba / Federico García Lorca
Lorca’s play addresses themes of anguish, repression, death, oppression, family relations, envy, and hatred. Bernarda dominates her daughters and subjects them to strict mourning following the death of their father. Conflict arises as the sisters fight over a man named Pepe el Romano. Lorca uses prose rather than poetry for this work to emphasize frustration and passion. The play creates a dual setting: the house as seen from the outside versus the reality of the house on the inside.
25. Prendimiento de Antoñito el Camborio / Federico García Lorca
The main themes are repression and discrimination. Lorca aims to highlight the legendary traditions of the Gypsy race and the contrast between that heritage and the protagonist's perceived cowardice. On Christmas Eve, Antonio Torres Heredia goes to Seville to see a bullfight but is arrested by the Civil Guard for stealing lemons. The poem is organized chronologically: a description of the protagonist, the time of year, thoughts on the protagonist's cowardice, and finally, the arrest.
26. Balada de los dos Abuelos / Nicolás Guillén
This poem centers on the pride the poet feels regarding his dual lineage: one African and one European. He speaks of both grandfathers to explain his feelings for his ancestors. Guillén, a Cuban poet, is famous for praising African and European cultures equally. He is known for using "jitanjáforas"—invented words or phrases used for their musical and rhythmic qualities rather than literal meaning—to give his poetry strength.
27. Mujer negra / Nancy Morejón
An Afro-Cuban poet with Spanish and African roots, Morejón grew up during the Cuban Revolution of Fidel Castro. This feminist poem uses free verse to narrate the experience from the perspective of an enslaved woman, serving as an allegory for the Cuban people. Literary elements include free verse (no rhyme or metric pattern), alliteration, auditory elements, gradation, synesthesia, allusion, rhetorical questions, and anaphora.
28. El Hombre que se convirtió en perro / Osvaldo Dragún
This Vanguardist play breaks with tradition through confused dialogue and "meta-theater," where actors speak directly to the audience. It is an existentialist piece focusing on an identity crisis. There is no emotional connection intended; instead, it is an invitation to reflect on society. The style is satirical and minimalist—lacking decoration and using few actors to play multiple roles—to criticize the dehumanization of society.
The Latin American Boom (20th Century)
29. No Oyes Ladrar Los Perros / Juan Rulfo
This Mexican short story follows a father trying to save the life of his wayward son. It examines the strained relationship between the two and the influence of the deceased mother on their lives. The father feels deep bitterness because his son did not turn out to be a good person. Rulfo uses a style associated with Magical Realism, blending reality with the unreal to give his characters a confused and distant existence, often characterized by constant suffering.
30. El Sur / Jorge Luis Borges
This story explores honor, dreams, and identity. Following an accident, the main character oscillates between reality and fantasy in a hospital setting. Ultimately, the character meets his end in a bar, or perhaps still within the hospital. Borges, an Argentine master of the fantastic story, uses dualism or "desdoblamiento" (splitting of the self) to give depth to his characters, often mixing high-class figures with the lower or "criollo" classes.
31. Borges y Yo / Jorge Luis Borges
This piece belongs to both Vanguardism and the Boom. It is prose that sits between an essay and a short story. The central concept is "desdoblamiento"—the formation of two personalities from one. It uses "stream of consciousness" (fluir de consciencia), a narrative form that captures the internal mental process and interior monologue of the character, exploring the existential crisis between the public persona and the private self.
32. Chac Mool / Carlos Fuentes
A man's friend reads his diary and discovers the circumstances of his death, finding that the Chac Mool statue the deceased had bought was actually alive. This Mexican author was a major figure in the Latin American Boom. He utilized Magical Realism to blend the mundane details of daily life with ancient Mesoamerican myths. The central theme is the conflict between man and mythological beings.
33. La Noche Boca Arriba / Julio Cortázar
After a motorcycle accident, a man in a hospital shifts between modern reality and a fantasy world where he is a Mesoamerican being hunted for sacrifice. In the end, he realizes the "fantasy" of the sacrifice is his true reality. Cortázar uses "desdoblamiento" similar to Borges to show psychological changes. The universe becomes a confused, incoherent labyrinth where the real and the imagined swap places.
34. La Siesta del Martes / Gabriel García Márquez
A mother and her daughter travel during the heat of the day to a town to bring flowers to her son, who was killed while committed a robbery. She must face the oppressive climate and a judgmental town that treats her with hostility. García Márquez, the most famous proponent of Magical Realism, focuses on the forgotten towns of Colombia, blending reality with the unique atmosphere of his homeland.
35. El ahogado más hermoso del mundo / Gabriel García Márquez
A small coastal village finds a drowned man of enormous size and beauty. The women fall in love with him, and eventually, the men come to admire him as well. After returning him to the sea, the village changes for the better, inspired by the man they named Esteban. The story examines how a singular event can unite a community and how a person can become a myth without any conscious action. It highlights the intersection of reality and magic.
Contemporary and Hispanic-Latino Literature
36. Como la vida misma / Rosa Montero
Originally published in under the title "Arrebato," this work explores modern/post-modern urban society. It captures the chaos, loneliness, aggression, competition, and stress of daily traffic and anxiety. It is a realistic short story that incorporates elements of theater (stage directions), monologues, second-person narration, and stream of consciousness, often with a humorous or comic edge.
37. Mi Caballo Mago / Sabine Ulibarrí
This story involves a magical horse that is impossible to domesticate or capture and examines the relationship between a father and son. There is a deep understanding between the son's dreams and what the father sees of himself in the boy. Born in New Mexico, USA, Ulibarrí’s style is "costumbrista," focusing on local customs, the poetic sense of life, and the passion of human existence in the past. All his stories are set in Tierra Amarilla.
38. …y no se lo tragó la tierra / Tomás Rivera
Set against the historical backdrop of the Bracero Program and the internal migration of Mexican agricultural workers in the s, this semi-autobiographical book is a foundational work of Chicano literature. It narrates the economic and social struggles, abuses, and experiences of Mexican-Americans in the U.S. during the Civil Rights and labor rights movements.
39. La noche buena / Tomás Rivera
This work focuses on cultural conflicts during the Christmas season (Noche Buena and Three Kings Day). It illustrates the bicultural and bilingual (Spanglish) experience of the Latino community in the U.S. during the s. Themes include poverty, discrimination, identity conflict, and assimilation. The story features cultural touchstones like "Kress Stores" and carries a strong message of social protest.
40. Dos Palabras / Isabel Allende
The protagonist, Belisa Crepusculario, has the unique ability to sell words that can change the lives of her listeners. She sells a speech to a dictator and gives him two specific words that haunt him and alter his path. Allende, a Chilean author, is associated with the Post-Boom and Magical Realism. Her characters, like Belisa, often inhabit a magical world; Belisa is portrayed as a character more mythical than real, desired by all but belonging to none.